Surface charging characteristics of rotating asteroids in the solar system

Song Zhi-Ying; Quan Rong-Hui; Liu Zhi-Gui

doi:10.7498/aps.73.20241182

Abstract

The attachment and movement of charged particles in the space plasma environment can result in observable potentials on the asteroid surface. This surface charging phenomenon has been extensively studied. However, so far, the influence of asteroid rotation on surface charging and the surrounding plasma has not yet been fully understood. Traditional methods using numerical integration and PIC have slow computation speeds, and mainly focus on the charging mechanisms of static asteroids. In this study, we establish a multi-scale model based on neural networks and the finite element method, thereby improving simulation efficiency and enabling three-dimensional dynamic simulations of rotating asteroids. Simulation results for asteroids with different rotation periods indicate that both the maximum surface potential and the minimum surface potential decrease as the rotation period increases. The minimum potential on the nightside decreases from –4.96 V with one-hour period to –5.97 V with one-week period. For asteroids with longer periods, this downward trend slows down: the period increases from one week to half a year, resulting in a potential change of 0.001 V. Because strong electric field near the the terminator accelerates electrons and ions, electrons respond more promptly to the electric field, owing to their much higher mobility and diffusion coefficient, exhibiting a more severe accumulation phenomenon than ions, resulting in the decrease of the surface potential. This phenomenon is most pronounced when the solar wind is obliquely incident, where the subsolar point is close to the terminator, resulting in the strongest electric field. When the period exceeds one week, this downward trend becomes less pronounced, specifically, the asteroid and plasma have enough time to reach equilibrium at various angles. During the passage of solar storms, there is a significant change in surface potential at different stages, with potential difference caused by rotation periods reaching hundreds of volts. Surface minerals also play a role, with plagioclase being the most sensitive mineral in the exploration, while ilmenite seems indifferent to changes in rotation periods. Understanding the surface charging of asteroids under various rotation periods and angles is crucial for further studying the solar wind plasma and the motion of asteroid’s surface dust, providing a reference for achieving safe landing and exploration of asteroids.

Keywords:

Authors and contacts

College of Astronautics, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China

Corresponding author: Quan Rong-Hui, quanrh@nuaa.edu.cn

Funds: Project supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 42241148, 51877111).

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References

[1]	Zimmerman M I, Farrell W M, Hartzell C M, Wang X, Horanyi M, Hurley D M, Hibbitts K 2016 J. Geophys. Res.: Planets 121 2150 Google Scholar
[2]	Hartzell C M, Scheeres D J 2013 J. Geophys. Res.: Planets 118 116 Google Scholar
[3]	Xie L H, Li L, Wang J D, Zhang Y T, Zhou B, Feng Y Y 2023 Astrophys. J. 952 61 Google Scholar
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[7]	Halekas J S, Delory G T, Lin R P, Stubbs T J, Farrell W M 2009 J. Geophys. Res.: Space Phys. 114 A5 Google Scholar
[8]	Zimmerman M I, Farrell W M, Poppe A R 2014 Icarus 238 77 Google Scholar
[9]	Quan R H, Zhang C Y, Zhang H C 2023 IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 51 1181 Google Scholar
[10]	Zhu H H, Cui Z Q, Liu J, Jiang S H, Liu X, Wang J H 2023 J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 11 1340 Google Scholar
[11]	Liu H, Xu Y, Wang C Y, Ding F, Xiao H S 2022 Mater. Res. Express 9 025504 Google Scholar
[12]	Adil M, Ullah R, Noor S, Gohar N 2022 Neural Comput. Appl. 34 8355 Google Scholar
[13]	Qian H M, Zhang H, Huang T, Huang H Z, Wang K 2023 Qual. Reliab. Eng. Int. 39 1878 Google Scholar
[14]	王馨悦, 张爱兵, 荆涛, Reme H, 孔令高, 张珅毅, 李春来 2016 地球物理学报 59 3533 Google Scholar Wang X Y, Zhang A B, Jing T, Reme H, Kong L G, Zhang S Y, Li C L 2016 Chin. J. Geophys. 59 3533 Google Scholar
[15]	Novikov L S, Mileev V N, Krupnikov K K, Makletsov A A, Marjin B V, Rjazantseva M O, Sinolits V V, Vlasova N A 2008 Adv. Space Res. 42 1307 Google Scholar
[16]	Wang S, Wu Z C, Tang X J, Yi Z, Sun Y W 2016 IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 44 289 Google Scholar
[17]	Whipple E C 1981 Rep. Prog. Phys. 44 1197 Google Scholar
[18]	Pandya A, Mehta P, Kothari N 2019 Int. J. Numer. Modell. Electron. Networks Devices Fields 32 e2631 Google Scholar
[19]	Hastings D, Garrett H 2004 Spacecraft-Environment Interactions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) pp143–156, 162–165
[20]	张海呈, 全荣辉, 张诚悦 2023 空间科学学报 43 78 Google Scholar Zhang H C, Quan R H, Zhang C Y 2023 Chin. J. Space Sci. 43 78 Google Scholar
[21]	Chávez G, Cortés-Vega L, Sotomayor A 2024 J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2701 012105 Google Scholar
[22]	Li X Y, Scheeres D J 2021 Icarus 357 114249 Google Scholar
[23]	古列维奇 A V著 (刘选谋, 张训械译) 1986 电离层中的非线性现象(北京: 科学出版社)第38—94, 107—140页 Gurevich A V (translated by Liu X M, Zhang X X) 1986 Nonlinear Phenomena in the Ionosphere (Beijing: Science Press) pp38–94, 107–140
[24]	金兹堡V L著(钱善瑎译) 1978电磁波在等离子体中的传播(北京: 科学出版社)第65—84页 Ginzburg V L (translated by Qian S X) 1978 The Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves in Plasmas (Beijing: Science Press) pp65–84
[25]	Skoug R M, Bame S J, Feldman W C, Gosling J T, McComas D J, Steinberg J T, Tokar R L, Riley P, Burlaga L F, Ness N F, Smith C W 1999 Geophys. Res. Lett. 26 161 Google Scholar
[26]	Farrell W M, Halekas J S, Killen R M, Delory G T, Gross N, Bleacher L V, Krauss-Varben D, Travnicek P, Hurley D, Stubbs T J, Zimmerman M I, Jackson T L 2012 J. Geophys. Res.: Planets 117 E00K04 Google Scholar
[27]	Zimmerman M I, Jackson T L, Farrell W M, Stubbs T J 2012 J. Geophys. Res.: Planets 117 E00K03 Google Scholar

Cited By

图 1 模拟区域示意图

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the simulation geometries.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

图 2 多尺度模型与PIC模拟结果对比

Figure 2. Comparison between our multi-scale simulation method and PIC simulation.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

图 3 自转周期为1天的小行星表面电势和周围等离子体环境

Figure 3. Surface potential and surrounding plasma of asteroid with rotation period of 1 day.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

图 4 不同自转周期的小行星表面最大和最小电位

Figure 4. The maximum and minimum potentials of asteroids with different rotation periods.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

图 5 太阳风暴期间小行星表面电位

Figure 5. Simulated potential during passage of the modeled solar storm.

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图 6 太阳风暴期间小行星表面归一化电位

Figure 6. Normalized potential during passage of the modeled solar storm.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

图 7 小行星三种组成矿物的充电结果　(a), (b) 斜长石; (c), (d) 斜方辉石; (e), (f) 钛铁矿

Figure 7. Charging results of three constituent minerals of asteroids: (a), (b) Plagiocase; (c), (d) orthopyroxene; (e), (f) ilmenite.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

表 1 太阳风暴各阶段太阳风参数

Table 1. Plasma parameters during passage of solar storm

阶段	标准	前向激波	早期CME	晚期CME
数密度/cm^–3	5—8	20	3	≥50
体速度/(km·s^–1)	400—450	600	650	500
T_e/eV	15	80	9	16
T_i/eV	10	40	6	4
c_s/(km·s^–1)	37.91	87.54	29.36	39.15

DownLoad: CSV

表 2 太阳风各阶段内小行星自转对充电结果的影响

Table 2. Influence of asteroid rotation on charging results during various solar storm stages.

阶段	周期	V_max/V	V_min/V	E_{elef_max}/(V·m^–1)
前向激波	0.467 h	16.74	–84.54	12.62
	1 h	16.73	–98.13	13.11
	6 h	16.22	–145.07	14.23
	1 d	16.15	–191.03	12.72
早期CME	0.467 h	9.57	–3.73	5.55
	1 h	9.57	–3.76	5.49
	12 h	9.57	–3.76	5.49
	1 month	9.57	–3.76	5.43
晚期CME	0.467 h	5.62	–73.80	8.72
	1 h	5.63	–111.55	10.64
	2 h	5.41	–179.86	20.35
	3 h	5.43	–270.21	18.80

DownLoad: CSV

表 3 表面矿物材料参数

Table 3. Material properties of different minerals.

材料	功函数/eV	阈值波长/nm	δ_max	E_max/eV	ε_r	σ/(pS·m^–1)
斜长石	5.58	238	2.8	1000	5.5	7
斜方辉石	5.14	259	2.1	700	2.9	7.5
钛铁矿	4.29	297	2.5	600	3.1	9

DownLoad: CSV

[1]	Zimmerman M I, Farrell W M, Hartzell C M, Wang X, Horanyi M, Hurley D M, Hibbitts K 2016 J. Geophys. Res.: Planets 121 2150 Google Scholar
[2]	Hartzell C M, Scheeres D J 2013 J. Geophys. Res.: Planets 118 116 Google Scholar
[3]	Xie L H, Li L, Wang J D, Zhang Y T, Zhou B, Feng Y Y 2023 Astrophys. J. 952 61 Google Scholar
[4]	Stubbs T J, Farrell W M, Halekas J S, Burchill J K, Collier M R, Zimmerman M I, Vondrak R R, Delory G T, Pfaff R F 2014 Planet. Space Sci. 90 10 Google Scholar
[5]	Kureshi R, Tripathi K R, Mishra S K 2020 Astrophys. Space Sci. 365 23 Google Scholar
[6]	Halekas J S, Delory G T, Brain D A, Lin R P, Fillingim M O, Lee C O, Mewaldt R A, Stubbs T J, Farrell W M, Hudson M K 2007 Geophys. Res. Lett. 34 L02111 Google Scholar
[7]	Halekas J S, Delory G T, Lin R P, Stubbs T J, Farrell W M 2009 J. Geophys. Res.: Space Phys. 114 A5 Google Scholar
[8]	Zimmerman M I, Farrell W M, Poppe A R 2014 Icarus 238 77 Google Scholar
[9]	Quan R H, Zhang C Y, Zhang H C 2023 IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 51 1181 Google Scholar
[10]	Zhu H H, Cui Z Q, Liu J, Jiang S H, Liu X, Wang J H 2023 J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 11 1340 Google Scholar
[11]	Liu H, Xu Y, Wang C Y, Ding F, Xiao H S 2022 Mater. Res. Express 9 025504 Google Scholar
[12]	Adil M, Ullah R, Noor S, Gohar N 2022 Neural Comput. Appl. 34 8355 Google Scholar
[13]	Qian H M, Zhang H, Huang T, Huang H Z, Wang K 2023 Qual. Reliab. Eng. Int. 39 1878 Google Scholar
[14]	王馨悦, 张爱兵, 荆涛, Reme H, 孔令高, 张珅毅, 李春来 2016 地球物理学报 59 3533 Google Scholar Wang X Y, Zhang A B, Jing T, Reme H, Kong L G, Zhang S Y, Li C L 2016 Chin. J. Geophys. 59 3533 Google Scholar
[15]	Novikov L S, Mileev V N, Krupnikov K K, Makletsov A A, Marjin B V, Rjazantseva M O, Sinolits V V, Vlasova N A 2008 Adv. Space Res. 42 1307 Google Scholar
[16]	Wang S, Wu Z C, Tang X J, Yi Z, Sun Y W 2016 IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 44 289 Google Scholar
[17]	Whipple E C 1981 Rep. Prog. Phys. 44 1197 Google Scholar
[18]	Pandya A, Mehta P, Kothari N 2019 Int. J. Numer. Modell. Electron. Networks Devices Fields 32 e2631 Google Scholar
[19]	Hastings D, Garrett H 2004 Spacecraft-Environment Interactions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) pp143–156, 162–165
[20]	张海呈, 全荣辉, 张诚悦 2023 空间科学学报 43 78 Google Scholar Zhang H C, Quan R H, Zhang C Y 2023 Chin. J. Space Sci. 43 78 Google Scholar
[21]	Chávez G, Cortés-Vega L, Sotomayor A 2024 J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2701 012105 Google Scholar
[22]	Li X Y, Scheeres D J 2021 Icarus 357 114249 Google Scholar
[23]	古列维奇 A V著 (刘选谋, 张训械译) 1986 电离层中的非线性现象(北京: 科学出版社)第38—94, 107—140页 Gurevich A V (translated by Liu X M, Zhang X X) 1986 Nonlinear Phenomena in the Ionosphere (Beijing: Science Press) pp38–94, 107–140
[24]	金兹堡V L著(钱善瑎译) 1978电磁波在等离子体中的传播(北京: 科学出版社)第65—84页 Ginzburg V L (translated by Qian S X) 1978 The Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves in Plasmas (Beijing: Science Press) pp65–84
[25]	Skoug R M, Bame S J, Feldman W C, Gosling J T, McComas D J, Steinberg J T, Tokar R L, Riley P, Burlaga L F, Ness N F, Smith C W 1999 Geophys. Res. Lett. 26 161 Google Scholar
[26]	Farrell W M, Halekas J S, Killen R M, Delory G T, Gross N, Bleacher L V, Krauss-Varben D, Travnicek P, Hurley D, Stubbs T J, Zimmerman M I, Jackson T L 2012 J. Geophys. Res.: Planets 117 E00K04 Google Scholar
[27]	Zimmerman M I, Jackson T L, Farrell W M, Stubbs T J 2012 J. Geophys. Res.: Planets 117 E00K03 Google Scholar

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