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Electrowetting refers to the phenomenon of modifying the surface tension between a liquid and a solid by adjusting the externally applied electric potential between the liquid and solid electrodes, thereby changing the contact angle between the two and causing a deformation and displacement of the droplets. Electrowetting electronic paper display is a new reflective “paper-like” display technology based on a rapid response microfluidic control technology. It has the advantages of low energy consumption, visual health, and flexibility of commercial electrophoretic electronic paper display products, while breaking through the bottlenecks of “full-color” and “video-speed response” that currently restrict the application of electronic paper display technology. In this paper, several physical directions involved in electrowetting display devices, especially wetting and electrowetting, binary phase fluid mechanics, microscopic and interfacial physics, photophysics, dielectric physics, thermophysics, and transient physics, are systematically reviewed; the basic principles of device operation, microscopic and mesoscopic physical pictures, internal mechanisms of device operation, and device reliability are also discussed in detail.
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Keywords:
- electrowetting /
- device physics /
- reflective display
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图 1 主流显示器件类型及其工作原理 (a) LCD液晶显示, 对背光源透射光进行调制; (b) OLED有机发光显示, 利用电光转换实现自发光; (c) E-Paper电子纸显示, 对环境光的反射进行调制
Figure 1. Working principles of mainstream display devices: (a) LCD (liquid crystal) display, based on modulation of backlight transmisssion; (b) OLED (organic light-emitting) display, based on self-emission by conversion from electricity to light; (c) E-Paper (electronic paper) display, based on modulation of reflective light from environment.
图 2 电泳电子纸显示原理. 微胶囊包裹的两色电异性颗粒体系, 通过施加电场的极性及强度控制颗粒运动, 实现白色(左)、灰色(中)、黑色(右)等灰阶显示
Figure 2. Working principles of electrophoretic e-paper display. Microcapsules are composed of positively charged white pigment chips and negatively charged black pigment chips. Particle motion is controlled by polarity and strength of external electric fields, resulting in display of white (left), grey (middle), and black (right) colors.
图 3 电润湿电子纸显示原理. 像素单元内两相流体体系通过施加电场强度控制油水界面运动, 实现灰阶调控 (a) 未加电状态; (b) 加电状态
Figure 3. Working principles of electrowetting e-paper display. Binary phase fluids composed of colored oil and transparent water are controlled by strength of external electric fields, resulting in color modulation: (a) Without electric bias; (b) with electric bias.
图 4 电润湿原理示意图
Figure 4. Schematics of electrowetting.
图 5 三相接触线及固液表面附近的电场力分布
Figure 5. Electric force distribution at the solid-liquid interface and near the three-phase contact line.
图 6 实验中典型的电润湿曲线
Figure 6. Typical electrowetting characteristics in experiments
图 7 流体体系基础理论研究方法 (a) 微观尺度: 分子动力学; (b) 介观尺度: 格子玻尔兹曼方法; (c) 宏观尺度: 纳维斯托克斯方程
Figure 7. Fundamental theoretical methods for fluid systems: (a) Microscopic scale: molecular dynamics; (b) mesoscopic scale: lattice Boltzmann method; (c) macroscopic scale: Navier-Stokes equation.
图 8 格子玻尔兹曼方法流体力学计算流程
Figure 8. Process of lattice Boltzmann method for computational fluid mechanics.
图 9 固液界面加电条件下的离子分布 (a) Helmholtz模型; (b) Gouy-Chapman模型; (c) Gouy-Chapman-Stern模型
Figure 9. Ion distribution near solid-liquid interfaces under electric stress: (a) Helmholtz model; (b) Gouy-Chapman model; (c) Gouy-Chapman-Stern model.
图 11 几何结构导致的钉扎/去钉扎效应示意图 (a) 接触角等于
$ \theta $ ; (b) 接触角等于$ \theta + \alpha $ ; (c) 接触角大于$ \theta + \alpha $ Figure 11. Pinning/depinning effect due to geometric structures: (a) Contact angle =
$ \theta $ ; (b) contact angle =$ \theta + \alpha $ ; (c) contact angle >$ \theta + \alpha $ .
图 15 偶氮苯环型电润湿显示染料结构式
Figure 15. Chemical structure of azobenzene-type dye molecules for electrowetting display.
图 17 金属络合类电润湿显示染料结构式
Figure 17. Chemical structure of metal-complex-type dye molecules for electrowetting display.
图 18 有机苝型电润湿显示染料结构式
Figure 18. Chemical structure of organic-perylene-type dye molecules for electrowetting display.
图 19 实际的各色电润湿显示油墨及其吸收光谱
Figure 19. Practical various-color oils for electrowetting display and their absorption spectra.
图 23 相减混色原理
Figure 23. Principle of subtractive color mixing.
图 25 基于三层叠加的全彩电润湿显示样机(a)及其色域(b)
Figure 25. Prototype of full color electrowetting display devices (a) based on three-layer superposition and its color gamut (b).
图 31 液体介电泳现象 (a) 介电液体朝向更强电场的方向运动[97]; (b) 介电液体中的气泡远离强电场方向运动[97]; (c) 液体的自由界面趋向与电场线平行[97]
Figure 31. Liquid DEP phenomenology: (a) Dielectric liquid drawn into a strong electric field[97]; (b) bubble repelled from a strong electric field[97]; (c) controlled liquid profile with surface parallel to the applied electric field[97].
图 32 液体介电泳实验操控微流体向上运动, 直至介电泳力与重力相平衡. 图中介电性的油性液体在两个平行共面电极之间的缝隙中上升, 并且截面为与电场线相平行的半圆形状[97]
Figure 32. Liquid DEP experiments with micro liquid moving upwards until DEP is balanced by gravity. Dielectric oil moves upwards within the slit between two parallel co-planar electrodes, with the cross section of the liquid in a semi-circle shape parallel to electric fields[97].
图 33 流体内部在自然对流情形下不同瑞利数Ra对应的等温线分布 (a)
$ Ra = {10^3} $ [99]; (b)$ Ra = {10^4} $ [99]; (c)$ Ra = $ $ {10^5} $ [99]; (d)$ Ra = {10^6} $ [99]Figure 33. Isotherms for a fluid under natural convection, with different Rayleigh numbers: (a)
$ Ra = {10^3} $ [99]; (b)$ Ra = $ $ {10^4} $ [99]; (c)$ Ra = {10^5} $ [99]; (d)$ Ra = {10^6} $ [99].
图 34 流体内部在自然对流情形下不同瑞利数对应的流线分布, 分别对应图33中的四种情况 (a)
$ Ra = {10^3} $ [99]; (b)$ Ra = {10^4} $ [99]; (c)$ Ra = {10^5} $ [99]; (d)$ Ra = {10^6} $ [99]Figure 34. Streamlines for a fluid under natural convection, for the four cases in Fig. 33: (a)
$ Ra = {10^3} $ [99]; (b)$ Ra = $ $ {10^4} $ [99]; (c)$ Ra = {10^5} $ [99]; (d)$ Ra = {10^6} $ [99].
图 36 温度梯度导致的液滴输运在亲疏水情形下表现出相反的运动方向 (a) 液滴中心位置与时间的关系[57]; (b) 亲疏水情况下的流场、温度场的分布[57]
Figure 36. Droplet transport driven by temperature gradient, with opposite directions for hydrophilic and hydrophobic surfaces: (a) Droplet centroid position as a function of time[57]; (b) streamlines and isotherms for hydrophilic and hydrophobic cases[57].
图 38 电润湿显示像素参数对光电响应曲线影响
Figure 38. Effects of pixel parameters in an electrowetting display on electro-optical response curves.
图 39 电润湿油墨驱动迟滞曲线开口率变化
Figure 39. Change of aperture ratio in the driving delay curve of electrowetting oil.
图 40 电润湿显示油墨驱动电压波形及其对应油墨状态, (a)—(d)分别对应状态①—④
Figure 40. Driving voltage waveform design for electrowetting display and the corresponding states of oil rupture. (a)–(d) corresponding to ①–④.
表 1 流体中离子动力学物理模型概况
Table 1. Overview of modeling of ion dynamics in fluids.
理论 重要特征 前提假设 Helmholtz 表面电荷被单分子层的反离子中和;
表面电势在两层离子间线性变化离子热运动、离子扩散、离子表面吸附、
溶剂-固体表面相互作用均忽略Gouy-Chapman 考虑了离子热运动; 离子被假设为点电荷 离子实际尺寸被忽略; 固体表面电荷均匀分布;
非库仑相互作用被忽略Stern 考虑了离子的有限尺寸及水合离子作用;
考虑了离子在固体表面的吸附作用(即Stern层)Stern层厚度小于实际尺寸;
Stern层流速假设为0
DownLoad: CSV
表 2 电润湿显示器件常用介电绝缘材料及其性能概况[87–89]
Table 2. Overview of common dielectric materials and their properties used in electrowetting display devices[87–89].
聚合物绝缘材料 介电材料 Parylene -C/N Teflon ®AF 1600 Teflon PTFE Cytop TM PDMS 聚氨酯 介电强度/(kV·mm–1) 268/276 21 60 110 21.2 22 介电常数 2.65/3.15 1.93 2.1 2.1 2.3—2.8 3.4 击穿电压/V ±240(DC)
<1 k(AC 50—20 kHz)— <300(DC)
<600 k(AC 1 kHz)<120(DC)
<800(AC 2 kHz)±500(DC) <400 (DC) 厚度/μm 3.5—30.0 0.01—0.10 25—50 0.1—1.0 38 6—35 接触角/(°) 126 120 114 110 120 50—80 加工工艺 气相沉积 旋涂/浸涂 成泡膜材料 旋涂 旋涂 旋涂 无机绝缘材料 介电材料 二氧化硅 氮化硅 BST 介电强度
/(kV·mm–1)400—600 500 18—54 介电常数 3.9 7.5 225—265 击穿电压/V VDC≥25 >40 VDC≥15 厚度/μm 0.1—1.0 0.15 0.07 接触角/(°) 46.7 30 40.8 加工工艺 PECVD 气相沉积 MOCVD
DownLoad: CSV
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