SPECIAL TOPIC—Fundamental physics problems in all solid state batteries
固态电池中的物理问题专题编者按
DOI: 10.7498/aps.69.220101
DOI: 10.7498/aps.69.220101
新能源汽车是当前我国优先发展的支柱性产业, 是国家科技和产业发展的重要方向, 担负着保障国家能源安全、降低环境污染和汽车行业快速发展等多重责任. 我国制定的《节能与新能源汽车产业规划(2011—2020)》中指出, 纯电动汽车、混合动力汽车是未来发展的重要方向, 动力电池为其中的关键技术. 工业和信息化部会同发展改革委、科技部、财政部等有关部门于2017 年2 月20 日联合印发了《促进汽车动力电池产业发展行动方案》明确提出, 到2020 年, 新型锂离子动力电池单体比能量超过300 瓦时/公斤, 系统比能量力争达到260 瓦时/公斤、成本降至1 元/瓦时以下; 到2025 年, 新体系动力电池技术取得突破性进展, 单体比能量达500 瓦时/公斤.
然而, 目前商用锂离子电池能量密度已达瓶颈, 且液态有机电解质存在易泄露、易腐蚀、易燃烧等安全隐患. 全固态锂电池相对于液态锂离子电池来说具有显著的优点: 1) 相对于液态有机电解质来说, 固态电解质不燃、不泄露、不挥发, 一方面从根本上保证电池的安全性, 另一方面可以避免由于长期循环液态电解质干涸导致的电池寿命短的问题; 2) 液态电解质在高温(45 ℃ 以上) 下会发生分解, 而固态电解质可以在较宽的温度范围内保持稳定, 因此全固态电池即使在高温下也可以保持良好的工作状态; 3) 采用固态电解质可以有效地阻挡锂枝晶的生长, 一方面保证电池的安全性,另一方面使用金属锂作负极成为可能, 大幅提升电池的能量密度; 4) 全固态电池体系中, 省去了液体电解质和隔膜, 简化电池的制造步骤, 减少了非活性成分, 还可以将固态电解质制备成超薄薄膜,从而提升电池的能量密度. 全固态电池由于没有流动的电解液, 可以先串联后包装, 减少非活性材料(电池包装) 的含量, 提升电池包的总体能量密度. 因此, 固态电池已成为下一代锂离子电池的重要发展方向之一. 全世界主要发达国家和地区都投入了大量财力物力支持固态电池技术的研发, 布局固态电池研发的企业已达50 余家, 并呈现出不断增长的趋势. 预计在未来10 年内, 全固态电池技术将会发展为全世界科学家和动力电池企业关注、竞争的焦点技术.
鉴于固态电池领域关键物理科学问题研究的挑战性与紧迫性, 《物理学报》特组织本专题, 邀请国内部分活跃在该领域前沿的中青年专家撰稿, 全面、深入地探讨该领域最新研究成果以及基础的物理科学问题. 本专题主要涉及以下三方面内容: 一、不同类型固态电解质材料体系的特征性物理问题，包括：石榴石型固态锂电池中的物理问题（青岛大学郭向欣等）; 石榴石型固态电解质表界面问题及优化的研究进展（中国科学院上海微系统与信息技术研究所刘啸嵩等）; 富钠反钙钛矿型固态电解质的简易合成与电化学性能研究（华中科技大学谢佳等)；三维多孔陶瓷骨架增强的复合电解质（中国科学院青岛生物能源与过程研究所崔光磊等）; PEO 基聚合物固态电池的界面研究进展（东北师范大学丛丽娜、谢海明等); 硫化物固态电解质材料界面及其表征的研究进展(厦门大学杨勇等）; 电解质中离子输运的微观物理图像（上海大学施思齐等）; 二、电解质与电极材料界面的特征性物理问题，包括：全固态电池中界面的结构演化和物质输运（中国科学院物理研究所谷林等)；全固态金属锂电池负极界面问题及解决策略(清华大学深圳国际研究生院李宝华等）; 固态电解质与电极界面的稳定性（复旦大学王飞、Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 韩福东、University ofMaryland 王春生等); 电解液及其界面电化学性质的机理研究进展（华南师范大学邢丽丹等）;三、全固态电池体系及特殊电极材料中的基础物理问题，包括：固态锂电池中的机械力学失效及解决策略（北京科技大学范丽珍等）; 实用化条件下金属锂负极失效的研究（河北科技大学陈爱兵、清华大学张强等)；金属锂在固态电池中的沉积机理 (中国科学院物理研究所李泓等）; 基于相场模型的电化学储能材料微结构演化研究进展（上海大学施思齐等）; 电池材料数据库的发展与应用（中科院物理所肖睿娟、陈立泉等）. 以上三方面内容基本涵盖了无机/有机固态电解质材料、界面、全固态电池、力学性能研究、模拟、实验和理论等各个方面, 以不同的视角探讨研究了最新进展、问题、现状和展望. 希望本专题的文章能够为固态电池领域研究的学术交流做一些贡献, 进一步促进此研究领域的发展.
(客座编辑: 李泓 中国科学院物理研究所; 施思齐 上海大学; 吴凡 中国科学院物理研究所)
SPECIAL TOPIC—Fundamental physics problems in all solid state batteriesPreface to the special topic: Fundamental physics
problems in all solid state batteries
DOI: 10.7498/aps.69.220101
2020, 69 (22): 228201.
doi: 10.7498/aps.69.20201227
Abstract +
All-solid-state sodium batteries are promising candidates in energy storage applications due to their high safety and low cost. A suitable solid electrolyte is a key component for high-performance all-solid-state sodium battery. Current inorganic solid electrolytes mainly include oxide- and sulfide-based electrolytes. However, the oxide-based electrolytes require to be sinetred above 1000 ℃ for high ionic conductivity, and most sulfide-based electrolytes can react with H2O torelease toxic H2S gas. These features will hinder the practical application of all-solid-state sodium batteries. In recent years, novel sodium ionic conductors have appeared successively. Among them, anti-perovskite type of Li/Na ionic conductor has received a lot of attention because of its high ionic conductivity and flexible structure design. Nevertheless, the synthesis of Na-rich anti-perovskite Na3OBrxI1–x (0 < x < 1) is complex, the ionic conductivity at room temperature is relatively low, and its electrochemical properties remain unknown. Here in this work, the phase-pure Na-rich anti-perovskite Na3OBrxI1–x is synthesized by a facile synthesis way. The X-ray diffraction patterns show that the anti-perovskite structure without any impurity phase is obtained. Alternating-current (AC) impedance spectrum is used for measuring ionic conductivity of electrolyte pellets after thermally being treated at around 100 ℃. The Na3OBr0.3I0.7 exhibits an ionic conductivity of 1.47 × 10–3 S/cm at 100 ℃. Unfortunately, the ionic conductivity experiences a sharp drop with the decrease of temperature, which may be related to the change of structural symmetry and Na sites in the structure revealed by solid state 23Na NMR. In particular, the ionic conductivities of Na3OBrxI1–x demonstrate the potential applications at medium temperature (40－80 ℃ in which the ionic conductivity of Na3OBrxI1–x is close to or higher than 10–4 S/cm) for all-solid-state sodium battery. Therefore, the compatibility against Na metal and the electrochemical performance in all-solid-state batteries have been evaluated. Since Na3OBrxI1–x is not “Na-philic”, the resistance in impedance of the Na/Na3OBr0.5I0.5/Na is very high. However, after modifying the interface by ionic liquid, the Na3OBr0.5I0.5 exhibits good compatibility against Na metal and tiny ionic liquid also leads to high initial discharge specific capacity of 190 mAh/g and excellent cycling stability (around 127 mAh/g after 10 cycles) in the TiS2/Na3OBr0.5I0.5/Na-Sn solid-state battery. The capacity decay maybe results from the inferior interfacial contact between the solid electrolyte and the electrode materials because the electrode materials in this system experience large volume change during cycling. The successful operation in solid-state sodium batteries indicates that the Na3OBrxI1–x is feasible to be used as a sodium solid electrolyte, which is of great importance for practical application of Na-rich anti-perovskite solid electrolytes.
2020, 69 (22): 228806.
doi: 10.7498/aps.69.20201533
Abstract +
With the increasing demand for storage devices with higher energy output and better safety performance, all-solid-state batteries show their potential to replace the traditional liquid-based Li-ion batteries in the future storage market. Garnet-type Li7La3Zr2O12 is one of the most attractive solid electrolyte materials because of its high ionic conductivity and stability to lithium metal. However, the large interfacial resistance originating from the insufficient solid-solid contact and the penetration of the lithium dendrite due to the inhomogeneous dissolution and deposition of lithium, hinder the all-solid-state batteries from developing. Focusing on the main interfacial problems in garnet-type all-solid battery, this review provides a fundamental understanding of the Li2CO3 issues in Li7La3Zr2O12 solid electrolyte and addresses the key factors influencing Li/ Li7La3Zr2O12/cathode interfacial wettability and the growth of Li dendrite, thus giving the key factors of constructing ideal interfaces. Finally, the possible research direction of garnet-type all-solid-state battery in the future is also prospected, which provides a guidance for developing and using all-solid-state batteries.
2020, 69 (22): 226104.
doi: 10.7498/aps.69.20201542
Abstract +
High-throughput methods based on automation technology and computer technology can quickly provide tens of thousands of scientific research data, which poses a new challenge to the scientific and efficient management of scientific data. Rechargeable secondary batteries are the keys to the development of electric vehicles and the first choice of wind/photoelectric energy storage. The discovery of new battery materials plays an important role in improving the performance of the secondary batteries. New methods based on big date can be introduced into the screening and design of battery materials to accelerate the development of secondary batteries. This work introduces the development and application of battery material database from the aspects of data acquisition, construction of general and specific battery material database, and the challenges faced by the battery material database.
2020, 69 (22): 228205.
doi: 10.7498/aps.69.20201553
Abstract +
Electrolyte not only plays the role of conducting ions in lithium ion battery, but also the thin layer electrolyte formed on the electrode surface determines the stability of electrode/electrolyte interface to a large extent, thus affecting the cycling stability, rate performance and safety of the battery. The successful commercialization and widespread application of lithium ion battery is closely related to the solid electrolyte interface film formed by the decomposition of electrolyte on the electrode surface. In this paper, the electrochemical stability and decomposition mechanism of the interface electrolyte are briefly reviewed, aiming to draw more scientists' attention to the electrolyte and its interfacial properties.
2020, 69 (22): 226601.
doi: 10.7498/aps.69.20201519
Abstract +
Analyzing the microscopic physical image of the ion transport characteristics has important guiding significance for improving the ion conduction behavior in the electrolytes. In this article, we summarize the factors influencing the physical images of ion transport in liquid, organic polymer and inorganic solid electrolytes. The descriptive factors relating to the ion transport physical image are refined by analyzing various transport physical models and comparing the ion transport mechanisms in the three types of electrolytes. In the evolution of the physical state from continuous fluid to flexible carrier to rigid framework, the ion transport image is characterized by the inherent properties of various electrolytes and external conditions, in which the disorder of the medium plays a dominant role. Revealing the relationships between the electrolyte structure and dynamic behaviors with the ion conductivity and transport process is conducive to the development of the method of controlling the dynamic performance of conducting ion based on the microphysical image of ion transport.
2020, 69 (22): 228501.
doi: 10.7498/aps.69.20200906
Abstract +
Lithium (Li) metal is regarded as one of the most promising anodes in the next-generation high-energy-density rechargeable batteries due to its ultrahigh theoretical specific capacity and low reduction potential. Nevertheless, the unstable solid electrolyte interphase on the surface of Li metal anode and the nonuniform Li deposition seriously hinder its practical applications. Currently, mild conditions are employed in the researches of Li metal anode, which is of great significance for fundamentally understanding the physicochemical features of the anode interface and the mechanisms of Li deposition. However, practical conditions including ultrathin Li metal anode (< 50 μm), low negative/positive electrode areal capacity ratio (< 3.0), and lean electrolyte (< 3.0 g·Ah–1) are the premise to realize high energy density of Li metal batteries (> 350 W·h·kg–1). Herein, the gaps of Li metal anode under mild and practical conditions in terms of the cycling stability and surface morphology are compared and the reasons for the gaps are analyzed carefully. The total quantity of active Li metal decreases and the utilization depth of Li per cycle has been greatly improved under practical conditions. Therefore, the huge volume fluctuation and uneven Li deposition result in ceaseless destruction and regeneration of solid electrolyte interphase, and thus consuming the lean electrolyte and generating a large quantity of dead Li rapidly. Consequently, the polarization voltage of Li metal anode increases rapidly and the cycling stability of Li metal batteries deteriorates evidently under practical conditions. Moreover, the electrochemical reaction of Li metal anode is accelerated while fast charge/discharge process is employed, which further aggravates the stability of Li metal anode. This work reveals the challenges of Li metal anode under practical conditions and present the perspectives for the further researches in practical Li metal anode, which conduces to the solid development of high-energy-density Li metal batteries.
2020, 69 (22): 228206.
doi: 10.7498/aps.69.20201554
Abstract +
Compared with the lithium-ion battery based on the non-aqueous electrolyte, all-solid-state lithium battery has received much attention and been widely studied due to its superiority in both safety and energy density. The electrochemical window of solid electrolyte determines whether the electrolyte remains stable during the cycling of the high-voltage battery. Current solid electrolytes typically have narrow electrochemical windows, thereby limiting their coupling with high voltage cathodes and lithium metal anode. Therefore, the formation of the stable interphase determines the stabilities of the all-solid-state batteries. Here in this work, both the experimental and theoretical progress of the electrochemical stability window of solid-state electrolytes are summarized. Besides, the experimental achievements in improving the stability of the interphase are also mentioned. On this basis, the strategies of constructing dynamically stable interphase and preventing the lithium dendrite branch crystal from forming are put forward. The future research direction of the interphase construction in all-solid-state batteries is also presented.
2020, 69 (22): 228804.
doi: 10.7498/aps.69.20201191
Abstract +
Solid-state lithium batteries with solid electrolytes have the potential to achieve high energy density and safety, which promise to be used in the electric vehicles and wearable devices. The garnet-type Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO) has attracted a great deal of attention due to its high ionic conductivity and good chemical stability to lithium metal. Here in this paper, based on recent progress, this review provides a fundamental understanding of garnet-based electrolytes by evaluating the thermodynamic/kinetics stability and analyzing the Li+ conduction mechanism of ceramics and composite garnet electrolytes. To address the key factors influencing the cyclability and safety of solid-state batteries, the rational design of solid electrolyte/electrode interfaces is discussed in terms of interface matching, charge transfer, strain/stress, thermal stability, etc. Finally, the design guidelines of high-energy-density solid-state batteries are introduced by analyzing the fabrication of electrodes, solid electrolyte and bipolar current collectors. Through the above discussion, this review provides an insight into the physical parameters affecting the performance of garnet-based electrolytes and interfaces, to guide one in carrying on more target-oriented researches of developing high-performance solid-state batteries.
2020, 69 (22): 228204.
doi: 10.7498/aps.69.20201293
Abstract +
Commercial lithium-ion batteries have inherent safety problems due to the usage of non-aqueous electrolyte as the electrolytes. The development of solid state lithium metal batteries is expected to solve these problems while achieving higher energy density. However, the problem of lithium plating still exists. This article reviews the deposition behavior of lithium metal anodes in solid-state batteries, and provides suggestions for high-energy-density and high-safety solid-state lithium batteries. This paper systematically summarizes the mechanism of Li deposition in polymers and inorganic solid state electrolytes, and discusses the strategies of controlling lithium deposition and preventing lithium dendrites and the characterization of Li metal anodes. In solid-state batteries, poor solid-solid contact between the electrolyte and the anode, defects, grain boundaries, cracks, pores, enhanced electric and ionic fields near the tip, and high electronic conductivity of the solid state electrolyte can all lead to lithium deposition, which may evolve into lithium dendrites. There are several strategies to control lithium deposition: 1). Use functional materials and structure design to induce uniform deposition of lithium, such as improving the solid state electrolyte/anode interfacial contact, using lithiophilic coatings or sites, and designing three-dimensional structure electrodes and solid state electrolytes. 2). Suppress the generation of lithium dendrites, such as limiting the free movement of anions in solid state electrolytes (especially polymer solid electrolytes), to reduce local space charge which induces lithium dendrites. In addition, optimizing the solid electrolyte synthesis process to reduce lithium dendrites caused by defects is also an important method. 3). Strategies for dendrites already formed are essential for safety concern. The dendritic deposition is one of the intrinsic properties of lithium. Thus, there is no guarantee that there will be no lithium dendrites, especially at high current density. Once lithium dendrites are formed, countermeasures are required. For example, improving the mechanical strength of solid state electrolytes, and using self-healing materials, structures, and cycling conditions are proposed to avoid safety hazards caused by lithium dendrites piercing. This article focuses on the control of lithium deposition. Suppressing lithium dendrites only solves a little problem of the application of lithium metal anodes. In the future, in order to use lithium metal as a negative electrode in practical all-solid-state batteries, many challenges need to be overcome, such as irreversible side reactions between lithium and other materials, safety and volume change of composite lithium anodes. In addition, in order to allow the laboratory's research results to be quickly transformed into applications, it is also necessary to establish battery design, assembly, and test standards that are in agreement with practical requirements. In short, all-solid-state lithium batteries still have a long way to go, but they have great potential for safe, high-performance, and low-cost energy storage systems in the future.
2020, 69 (22): 228805.
doi: 10.7498/aps.69.20201218
Abstract +
The developing of all-solid-state lithium-metal batteries promises to improve safety and energy density. The challenges in the anode|electrolyte interface are crucial and divided into static and dynamic issues in this review. The static issues are mainly shown as the huge resistances appearing in the assembled batteries, while the dynamic issues are reflected in the rapid deterioration of cycling performance. The static issues are mainly due to the poor chemical stability and interfacial contact, while dendrite growth and void formation are contained in the dynamic issues. Solving dynamic issues on the basis of static issues can conduce to the construction of stable all-solid-state lithium-metal batteries.
2020, 69 (22): 226201.
doi: 10.7498/aps.69.20200713
Abstract +
The mechanical properties of electrode materials and solid-state electrolytes in solid-state batteries (SSBs) have an important influence on the mechanical stabilties of SSBs. Mechanical failures in SSBs on different scales and in different components will occur once the stress inside SSBs exceeds the materials’ strengths, which seriously deteriorates the electrochemical performances of SSBs. From the perspective of stabilizing the mechanical stabilities of SSBs, in this review we describe the influences of the mechanical properties of each component in SSBs on the mechanical stabilites of SSBs, and we analyze the factors that affect the mechanical properties of materials. In addition, we also discuss the mechanical failures of SSBs during cycle, including electrode materials’ or solid-state electrolytes’ fractures, electrode-electrolyte contact losses, and short-circuits due to lithium dendrites. Finally, we summarize some common strategies to mitigate the mechanical failures in SSBs, and look forward to the future research directions in this field. Overall, the mechanical failures in SSBs and their strategies discussed in this review will help researchers build SSBs with higher energy density, longer life and higher safety.
2020, 69 (22): 226801.
doi: 10.7498/aps.69.20201160
Abstract +
The essence of the scientific problem in all solid-state batteries lies in the properties of the introduced solid electrolyte and the existence of a new solid-solid interface. Starting from the structure-property relationship, the structural evolution of the solid-solid interface and the electrolyte itself, and the matter transport process determine the performance of the all-solid-state battery. With the continuous enrichment of solid electrolyte materials, the current problems in all solid-state batteries are mainly concentrated on the solid-solid interface. The composition and structure at the interface limit the performance of all solid-state batteries. According to the different situations of solid-solid interface contact, this article summarizes and discusses the structure and matter transport at the solid-solid interface in all solid-state batteries according to the three levels of solid-solid interface physical contact, chemical contact and surface modification. Finally, the relationship between local symmetry and material properties under the macroscopic complex system is discussed from the perspective of the functional origin of functional materials.
2020, 69 (22): 226401.
doi: 10.7498/aps.69.20201411
Abstract +
With the rapid progress of computer technology, computational research exhibits significant advantages in investigating microstructure evolution of material systems. As a computational research method of material dynamics, increasing attention has been paid to the phase-field model because of its avoidance of complicated interface tracking and convenience of dealing with applied fields. Theoretical framework of the phase-field model and three current phase-field models for multicomponent multiphase systems (the Carter, Steinbach, and Chen models) are introduced and reviewed in terms of interpretation of phase-field variables, way of coupling thermodynamic database, way of constructing the free energy density, and evolution equations. This review only focuses on the application of the phase-field model in electrochemical energy storage materials, and introduces its existing phase-field simulation results, which demonstrates that the phase-field model has tremendous potential in describing the microstructure evolution (anisotropic transport and phase separation, elastic and plastic deformation, crack propagation and fracture, dendrite growth, etc) and improving the performance of electrochemical energy storage materials. Finally, from two aspects of improving phase-field theory and extending application, future development trend and problems to be solved of phase-field simulations in electrochemical energy storage materials are discussed and looked ahead.
2020, 69 (22): 228202.
doi: 10.7498/aps.69.20201588
Abstract +
Polyethylene oxide(PEO) based solid-state batteries have high safety and high energy density, making them suitable for next-generation energy storage devices. However, their energy density reaches a limitation due to the narrow electrochemical window of PEO solid electrolyte. The electrode materials that are compatible with PEO electrolyte is less, thus handering it from being put into wide application. At the PEO/electrode interface, there are side reactions between anode/PEO and PEO cathode. Some strategies are proposed to reduce the side reactions, electrochemical performances of solid-state batteries are improved. To understand the change of interface, several advanced characterizations are employed, which can offer scientific evidence of increasing the interface stability in the future.
2020, 69 (22): 228803.
doi: 10.7498/aps.69.20201581
Abstract +
The development of high-energy density and high-safety all-solid-state lithium battery (ASSLB) technology has important practical significance for promoting the upgrading of lithium battery technology and the strengthening of technological development in this field. The solid electrolyte is a core component of the ASSLB. The sulfide solid electrolyte is regarded as one of the most promising solid electrolyte candidates for practical application in ASSLBs due to its high ionic conductivity, better mechanical ductility, and good interface contact with the electrode. However, its practical application is severely hampered by the issues of poor air stability and interface problems, including interface side reactions, lithium dendritic growth, and interface mechanical failure. In this review, we first summarize the research methods and degradation mechanisms of the air stability of sulfide solid electrolytes, and the strategies and methods to improve their air stability. Then, the electrochemical stability, interface compatibility and related interfacial modification strategies for sulfide electrolyte/electrode interface are summarized and discussed. Further, the research progress of in-situ characterization technologies for sulfide solid electrolyte/electrode interfaces in recent years is analyzed and summarized. Finally, an outlook on the future research and development of stable interfaces in sulfide solid electrolyte based ASSLBs is highlighted.
2020, 69 (22): 228203.
doi: 10.7498/aps.69.20201552
Abstract +
All solid-state lithium batteries demonstrate excellent characteristics of high safety and energy density, which make them very promising energy storage devices. Among various kinds of solid electrolytes, rigid-flexible coupling composite electrolyte combines the advantages of rigid solid inorganic ceramic electrolytes, i.e., excellent room temperature ionic conductivity, and of flexible solid polymer electrolytes, i.e., the flexibility, and thereby is considered to be one of the most ideal electrolyte candidates for all solid-state lithium batteries. Dispersing 0- or 1-dimensional inorganic fillers is a widespread method to fabricate rigid-flexible coupling composite, where the ionic conductivity of polymer can be improved by one order of magnitude mainly due to the decreased degree of crystallinity. However, aim to further increase the ionic conductivity by increasing the filler content cannot be accomplished because of the fillers' tendency to aggregation. what's more, the highly conductive inorganic fillers are separated by the polymer phase and thus cannot form fast and continuous Li+ transportation channels. Accordingly, inorganic fillers which can provide percolated pathway for Li+ transportation and avoid aggregating are highly desirable. To this end, different from adding 0- or 1-dimensional inorganic fillers into polymer matrices, polymers can be cast into porous inorganic substrates, that is, 3-dimensional porous ceramic framework, to obtain organic-inorganic composite electrolyte, in which organic phase, inorganic phase, and organic/inorganic interfacial phase are all continuous for fast Li+ transportation. And meanwhile, its self-supported structure prevents the agglomeration of inorganic particles. In recent years, the 3-dimensional porous ceramic framework has been more and more frequently used in rigid-flexible coupling composite electrolytes. To have a deep insight into the positive function of 3-dimensional porous ceramic framework, in this review, we firstly reveal the mechanism of the huge improvement in the ionic conductivity and thermostability of the composite electrolyte. Then, we summarize the frequently used preparation methods of the 3-dimensional porous ceramic framework reported recently. Finally, for the future perspective of rigid-flexible coupling composite electrolyte development, we propose two feasible improvement strategies. This review can thereby provide great significance of designing solid electrolytes with comprehensive performance for all solid-state lithium batteries with high energy density and superior safety.
