Atmospheric neutron single event effect in 65 nm microcontroller units by using CSNS-BL09

Hu Zhi-Liang; Yang Wei-Tao; Li Yong-Hong; Li Yang; He Chao-Hui; Wang Song-Lin; Zhou Bin; Yu Quan-Zhi; He Huan; Xie Fei; Bai Yu-Rong; Liang Tian-Jiao

doi:10.7498/aps.68.20191196

Abstract

Authors and contacts

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1. 引　言
2. MCU辐照实验
2.1 测试硬件
2.2 辐照源
2.3 测试实验
3. 结果与讨论
3.1 测试结果
3.2 结果分析
4. 结　论

References

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Abstract

The 65 nm-microcontroller units (MCUs) are being widely used in critical terrestrial tests, and the risk from atmospheric neutron becomes more and more serious. The spallation neutron source contains broad energy spectrum, which is different from the mono-energetic neutron sources, and is the most ideal irradiation source for atmospheric neutron single event effect (SEE). Benefiting from China Spallation Neutron Source (CSNS), the atmospheric neutron SEE in 65 nm-MCUs is tested for the first time at the CSNS 9^th beam line in China. The beam line is locatedin the 46° direction along the proton hitting the target, and the neutron spectrum is achieved to range from meV to 1.6 GeV. The test is conducted in two conditions in order to investigate the influence of thermal neutron. One is that the thermal neutrons are shielded with a 2-mm-thick cadmium slat at the beam ejection hole, and the other is not. The detected effects are single bit upset (SBU) events. 16 SBU events are detected when 5.3363 × 10¹⁷ protons hit the tungsten target without the thermal neutron, and 63 SBU events are recorded in the condition of 7.2131 × 10¹⁷ protons striking the target and thermal neutrons included. Comparing with the high energy neutron (>1 MeV), the SBU events caused by thermal neutron contribute about 65% of the number of total upset events. The test results preliminarily illustrate that the thermal neutrons dominate the 65 nm MCU reliability.

Keywords:

PACS:

85.30.De	(Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling)
21.60.Ka	(Monte Carlo models)

Authors and contacts

1.
School of Nuclear Science and Technology, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China
2.
Spallation Neutron Source Science Center, Dongguan 523803, China
3.
Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
4.
Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China

Corresponding author: Li Yong-Hong, yonghongli@mail.xjtu.edu.cn ; Liang Tian-Jiao, tjliang@ihep.ac.cn

Funds: Project supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 11575138, 11835006, 11690040, 11690043, 11705216) and the Science and Technology Project of Guangdong Province, China (Grant Nos. 2017B090901068, 20170921)

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1. 引　言

近年来, 随着制造工艺的提升, 大气中子辐照导致的先进电子系统可靠性问题正在引发关注^[1-5], 而先进微控制器(MCU)广泛应用于工业自动化控制、消防和安全系统、医疗仪器、物联网应用等领域, 其在大气中子环境下的可靠性问题亟待研究^[6].

中子虽不带电, 但其与物质作用可引发一些效应^[7], 如中子入射电子系统会导致位移损伤效应、总剂量效应和单粒子效应(SEE)^[8]等. 对于纳米级MCU, 需重点关注SEE^[9]. 中子之所以能够导致电子系统发生SEE, 是因为其会与半导体中硅原子等发生反应产生次级带电粒子, 如质子、α粒子、反冲重核等, 这些带电粒子可通过电离等方式沉积能量(α粒子、反冲重核等), 一旦敏感体积内沉积的能量超过其阈值, 就会导致效应发生.

对于硅基电子系统, 中子诱发单粒子效应的次级粒子主要分为两类: 一类为热中子与¹⁰B发生核反应产生的次级粒子, 另一类为高能中子(中子能量E_n ≥ 1 MeV)与硅原子核发生核反应或散裂反应产生的次级粒子. 图1为B, Si等核素的中子反应截面. 其中图1(a)为硼、硅同位素的中子截面, 中子能量范围为10^–11—1 MeV. 图1(b)为²⁸Si, ²⁷Al, ¹⁸⁴W等的中子截面(本文所研究的MCU衬底为Si, 钝化层, 互联层中亦存在N, O, Al, W), 对应中子能量范围为1—150 MeV^[10]. 由图1可知, 热中子与¹⁰B的反应截面远高于其他核素, 同时也比高能中子与²⁸Si, ²⁷Al, ¹⁸⁴W等的反应截面要高三个数量级以上^[11], 这意味着对于纳米级工艺电子系统, 即使其中含有微量¹⁰B, 热中子对其可靠性影响也应引起重视.

$图 1 半导体中各核素的中子反应截面　(a)与B, Si的同位素的反应截面, 对应中子能量范围10–11−1 MeV; (b)与14N, 16O, 27Al, 28Si, 184W的反应截面, 对应中子能量范围1−150 MeV\r\nFig. 1. Cross sections of different energy neutrons interacting with various nuclear atoms in semiconductor: (a) Cross sections of B and Si isotopes, the neutron energy interval is 10–11−1 MeV; (b) cross sections of 14N, 16O, 27Al, 28Si and 184W, the neutron energy interval is 1−150 MeV.$

图 1 半导体中各核素的中子反应截面　(a)与B, Si的同位素的反应截面, 对应中子能量范围10^–11−1 MeV; (b)与¹⁴N, ¹⁶O, ²⁷Al, ²⁸Si, ¹⁸⁴W的反应截面, 对应中子能量范围1−150 MeV

Fig. 1. Cross sections of different energy neutrons interacting with various nuclear atoms in semiconductor: (a) Cross sections of B and Si isotopes, the neutron energy interval is 10^–11−1 MeV; (b) cross sections of ¹⁴N, ¹⁶O, ²⁷Al, ²⁸Si and ¹⁸⁴W, the neutron energy interval is 1−150 MeV.

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对于180 nm以上工艺电子系统, 一般认为与热中子发生反应的¹⁰B主要来自于电子系统封装中的硼磷硅玻璃(BPSG)^[12]. 对于更小工艺的纳米级电子系统, 其已不再使用含BPSG封装. 但是, 近年来有研究表明半导体阱中、互联层以及半导体制造和刻蚀过程中引入的¹⁰B造成纳米级电子系统SEE效应有可能超过高能重离子^[13,14].

当前, 纳米级工艺MCU主要应用于对可靠性要求较高的各类地面工况中(如医疗设备、工艺控制设备等), 影响其可靠性的一个重要因素就是大气中子. 大气中子能谱很宽, 从meV到GeV, 既包含热中子亦包含高能中子, 因此, 其诱发SEE的测试和分析较为复杂^[15]. 对于大气环境下高能中子诱发的SEE, 一种认为是由10 MeV以上高能中子导致^[16], 另一种则认为1—10 MeV中子贡献不可忽略, 特别是对于纳米级电子系统, 更应考虑1 MeV以上中子的贡献^[17]. 对于中子源, IEC62396-2规定可用于辐照试验的中子源有: 散裂中子源、准单能中子源、单能14 MeV D-T中子源^[18]. 其中, 散裂中子源因其中子能谱最接近大气中子能谱, 是研究大气中子SEE的最佳选择. 中国散裂中子源(CSNS)的建成与运行使得在我国利用散裂中子源开展大气中子SEE研究成为现实.

本文利用中国散裂中子源9号束线(CSNS-BL09)对65 nm工艺商用MCU进行了大气中子SEE测试研究. 与此同时, 比较并分析了不同能段中子导致的65 nm MCU单粒子效应差异.

2. MCU辐照实验

2.1 测试硬件

测试对象为德州仪器公司(TI)的Tiva C系列微控制, 型号为TM4 C1294 NCPDT, 其具有以下特征^[6]:

1) 65 nm互补金属氧化物半导体制造工艺;

2)芯片内集成ARM Cortex-M4内核, 1 MB 闪存、6 kB电可擦可编程只读存储器和256 kB片上静态随机存取存储器(SRAM);

3)芯片外集成丰富的外设及网络通讯接口.

本次测试的辐照区域为测试板主芯片部分(DUT), 测试负载为256 kB片上SRAM中的64 kB. 为了排除芯片封装中元素对研究结果的影响, 实验前对芯片进行了开盖处理. 为了进一步明确该MCU纵向结构信息, 实验前对同批次芯片进行了聚焦离子束分析, 结果表明该款65 nm MCU为5层铜质结构, 从钝化层到硅衬底表面厚度约为7 μm.

2.2 辐照源

CSNS是利用加速器加速质子轰击钨靶产生并利用中子的大科学装置, 其设计功率为100 kW, 入射质子最高能量为1.6 GeV^[19-21]. 本次实验在9号束线(BL-09)上进行, 束流从质子入射方向46°角处经退耦合窄化液氢慢化器引出, 可垂直作用于待测芯片, 所引出中子近似均匀分布. 图2为两组实验条件下的中子能谱, 为蒙特卡罗粒子输运程序计算所得. 其中未放置镉吸收体(对照组)的中子能谱, 采用中子飞行时间法测量了5 MeV以下能区中子能谱, 理论结果与实验数据基本一致.

$图 2 实验束线中子能谱\r\nFig. 2. Neutron spectrum of the experiments.$

图 2 实验束线中子能谱

Fig. 2. Neutron spectrum of the experiments.

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2.3 测试实验

通过位置调节, 使主芯片中心与孔中心处于同一水平, 如图3(a)所示. 中子从距离慢化器表面8.95 m、孔径为2 cm的孔洞中引出轰击待测芯片.

$图 3 65 nm MCU散裂中子辐照测试现场图　(a) DUT与出射孔相对位置图; (b)含2 mm厚镉屏蔽体测试现场图; (c)无镉屏蔽测试现场图\r\nFig. 3. 65 nm MCU neutron test site: (a) The device under test and the 2 cm ejection hole; (b) with 2 mm cadmium shielding; (c) without cadmium shielding.$

图 3 65 nm MCU散裂中子辐照测试现场图　(a) DUT与出射孔相对位置图; (b)含2 mm厚镉屏蔽体测试现场图; (c)无镉屏蔽测试现场图

Fig. 3. 65 nm MCU neutron test site: (a) The device under test and the 2 cm ejection hole; (b) with 2 mm cadmium shielding; (c) without cadmium shielding.

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大气中子中热中子部分易于屏蔽, 通过设置2 mm厚镉中子吸收体即可改变中子能谱, 对比不同辐照条件下诱发的SEE差异即可分析热中子对65 nm MCU SEE的影响. 具体实施如下:

1)测试组, 不包含热中子, 即在出射孔处设置2 mm厚镉吸收体以吸收热中子, 其可有效阻挡0.5 eV以下中子;

2)对照组, 包含热中子, 即引出中子直接轰击DUT.

图3(b)和图3(c)分别为两组实验现场, 其中图3(b)中设置了镉中子吸收体(蓝色虚线区域), 图3(c)中未设置. 测试采用动态形式, 即对64 kB的存储单元连续地执行写、读以及对比操作, 写入数据为0 xA5 A5 A5 A5^[22]. 两组实验针对同一个测试板, 利用同一个测试系统在室温和正常供压(5 V)下进行, 每组辐照时间约3 h, 测试时间间隔为10 h.

3. 结果与讨论

两组实验均只探测到了单位翻转(SBU), 未探测到其他效应. 其中, 测试组共探测到SBU 16次, 对照组共探测到SBU 63次. 根据图2给出的测试组和对照组中子能谱, 从谱型上看0.5 eV以上能区, 中子通量基本一致, 0.5 eV以下能区, 通量相差至少一个量级, 表明2 mm厚镉中子吸收体可有效吸收中子. 后续讨论中, 将0.5 eV以下能区中子视为热中子, 0.5 eV以上中子称为镉上中子.

3.1 测试结果

表1给出了两组实验条件下中子单粒子翻转位数及中子注量数据, 其中中子单粒子翻转位数为实验值, 中子注量数据则是归一到单个入射质子的蒙特卡罗计算值与总质子数的乘积, 总质子数是CSNS运行时, 相应时间段内的打靶质子数. 为对比方便, 对照组中引入了一组质子数归一值, 该值为总质子数从7.21 × 10¹⁷降至5.33 × 10¹⁷时所得.

表 1 两组辐照下的实验数据

Table 1. The experiment data in two irradiations.

物理量		测试组	对照组
物理量		实验值	实验值	推导值
SBU次数		16	63	46
总质子数/p		5.3363 × 10¹⁷	7.2131 × 10¹⁷	5.3363 × 10¹⁷
中子注量/n·cm^–2	镉上中子	7.6997 × 10¹⁰	1.0703 × 10¹¹	7.9182 × 10¹⁰
中子注量/n·cm^–2	热中子	1.2585 × 10⁸	1.0062 × 10¹⁰	7.4440 × 10⁹

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| 显示表格

由表1可得, 同一总质子束流条件下, 测试组发生了16次SBU, 对照组为46次. 两组实验中, 镉上中子能谱完全一致. 表1中归一化处理后, 测试组与对照组推导值中镉上中子注量相差仅为2.73%, 因此同一器件同等中子注量条件下测试组与对照组中镉上中子引起的SBU次数相等, 即对照组推导值中46次SBU, 最多有16次是镉上中子引起, 至少有30次是由热中子引起. 由此可知, 对于此款65 nm MCU, 热中子导致的单粒子翻转占比达65%, 高能中子与大量元素的反应产物引起的单粒子效应占35%. 如只考虑镉上中子的贡献, 其SEU敏感性至少被低估了约65%.

文献[23]指出中, 半导体阱中, 互联层中以及半导体刻蚀过程中引入的¹⁰B能够显著影响纳米级电子系统可靠性. 文献[24]通过对纳米级半导体进行二次离子质谱分析指出, 相对于半导体中的Cu, O, N等核素, ¹⁰B正好处于纳米级工艺半导体晶体管正上方, 其与晶体管敏感区域的紧密性是热中子影响较大的一个关键因素.

3.2 结果分析

中子能否诱发纳米级电子系统SEE主要取决于所产生的次级粒子, 而中子能量决定了次级粒子种类和能量. 从表1两组结果可得差异主要来自热中子.

热中子(n_th)与¹⁰B主要发生如(1), (2)式所述的反应, 其中前者发生概率为6.3%, 后者发生概率为93.7%^[25]. 随着电子系统工艺尺寸的减小, 临界电荷的降低, 上述反应产生的次级粒子如果在敏感体积中沉积少许能量, 就有可能导致65 nm MCU发生SBU.

$^{10}{\rm{B}} + {{\rm{n}}_{{\rm{th}}}}{ \;\to\; {}^7}{\rm{Li}}\left( {1.01\;{\rm{MeV}}} \right) + {\rm{\alpha }}\left( {1.78\;{\rm{MeV}}} \right),$

(1)

$\begin{split} ^{10}{\rm{B}}\, & + {{\rm{n}}_{{\rm{th}}}}{ \;\to\;{}^7}{\rm{Li}}\left( {0.84\;{\rm{MeV}}} \right) + {\rm{\alpha }}\left( {1.47\;{\rm{MeV}}} \right) \\ &+ {\rm{\gamma }}\left( {0.48\;{\rm{MeV}}} \right). \end{split}$

(2)

由(1)和(2)式可知, 热中子与¹⁰B反应的次级粒子主要是⁷Li和⁴He. 图4所示为不同能量⁷Li和α粒子的线性能量转移(LET)值和硅中射程^[26]. 由图4可知0.84 MeV的⁷Li硅中射程约为2.5 μm, 1.47 MeV的α粒子硅中射程约为5 μm. 因为对于该MCU, 从钝化层到硅衬底表面厚度约为7 μm, 由此可知这两种次级粒子的硅中射程小于芯片厚度, 从而验证与热中子发生反应的¹⁰B的确并非来自于封装结构, 而是来自于半导体内部阱掺杂或者互联层等.

$图 4 热中子与10B反应产生次级粒子在不同能量下的LET与硅中射程\r\nFig. 4. The LET values and ranges of secondary particles from thermal neutrons interacting with 10B.$

图 4 热中子与¹⁰B反应产生次级粒子在不同能量下的LET与硅中射程

Fig. 4. The LET values and ranges of secondary particles from thermal neutrons interacting with ¹⁰B.

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当⁷Li和α粒子产生于芯片内部时, 其完全有可能穿过敏感体积(SV), 通过直接电离沉积能量并导致SBU. 图5所示, 为65 nm MCU内部热中子与钨互联层中¹⁰B发生反应产生次级粒子沉积能量示意图. 图中, 绿色与紫色椭圆区域为两种次级粒子可能沉积能量的区域示意图, 如果敏感体积位于这一区域内, 就有可能导致单粒子翻转(SEU).

$图 5 65 nm MCU内部热中子与10B反应次级粒子沉积能量示意图\r\nFig. 5. The sketch of thermal neutron interacting with 10B in 65 nm MCU.$

图 5 65 nm MCU内部热中子与¹⁰B反应次级粒子沉积能量示意图

Fig. 5. The sketch of thermal neutron interacting with ¹⁰B in 65 nm MCU.

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文献[27]通过模拟给出了同类工艺下65 nm SRAM单粒子翻转截面与LET的威布尔拟合结果, 该拟合中对应LET阈值(LET_th)约为1.15 MeV·cm²·mg^–1, 饱和截面(σ_∞)约为4.70 × 10^–9 cm²·bit^–1. 热中子与¹⁰B反应生成的0.84 MeV ⁷Li, 其LET为2.10 MeV·cm²·mg^–1大于阈值1.15 MeV·cm²·mg^–1, 且其在硅中射程为2.46 μm, 在末端布拉格峰附近, 沉积能量可以达到最大, 易导致SEU. 而1.47 MeV α粒子, 其LET为1.15 MeV·cm²·mg^–1, 接近65 nm SRAM 单粒子效应截面LET_th. 由于阈值附近相比于较高LET处诱发SEU的概率低, 因此推断热中子与¹⁰B反应生成的0.84 MeV ⁷Li可能是导致65 nm MCU发生SEE的主要原因.

由于大气中子能谱从meV到GeV, 在利用散裂中子源BL09束线评估65 nm MCU大气中子环境下的SEE敏感性时, 采用不设置镉吸收体的辐照更合理. 同时, 对于大气环境下可靠性要求较高的65 nm MCU应用环境, 如设计2 mm厚镉屏蔽层, 可将器件可靠性提高. 对于更小工艺电子系统大气中子SEE, 在研究其大气中单粒子效应时, 热中子影响应引起重视.

4. 结　论

针对65 nm MCU中的片上存储器, 利用中国散裂中子源9号束线进行了大气中子单粒子效应敏感性初步测试. 测试结果表明, 对于65 nm MCU的大气中子单粒子效应, 第一: 测试束线应含热中子, 否则其单粒子效应敏感性可能被低估约65%. 第二: 热中子与¹⁰B反应生成的0.84 MeV ⁷Li可能是热中子诱发65 nm MCU单粒子效应的主要原因.

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其他类型引用(6)

Figure 1. Cross sections of different energy neutrons interacting with various nuclear atoms in semiconductor: (a) Cross sections of B and Si isotopes, the neutron energy interval is 10^–11−1 MeV; (b) cross sections of ¹⁴N, ¹⁶O, ²⁷Al, ²⁸Si and ¹⁸⁴W, the neutron energy interval is 1−150 MeV.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

图 2 实验束线中子能谱

Figure 2. Neutron spectrum of the experiments.

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图 3 65 nm MCU散裂中子辐照测试现场图　(a) DUT与出射孔相对位置图; (b)含2 mm厚镉屏蔽体测试现场图; (c)无镉屏蔽测试现场图

Figure 3. 65 nm MCU neutron test site: (a) The device under test and the 2 cm ejection hole; (b) with 2 mm cadmium shielding; (c) without cadmium shielding.

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图 4 热中子与¹⁰B反应产生次级粒子在不同能量下的LET与硅中射程

Figure 4. The LET values and ranges of secondary particles from thermal neutrons interacting with ¹⁰B.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

图 5 65 nm MCU内部热中子与¹⁰B反应次级粒子沉积能量示意图

Figure 5. The sketch of thermal neutron interacting with ¹⁰B in 65 nm MCU.

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表 1 两组辐照下的实验数据

Table 1. The experiment data in two irradiations.

物理量		测试组	对照组
物理量		实验值	实验值	推导值
SBU次数		16	63	46
总质子数/p		5.3363 × 10¹⁷	7.2131 × 10¹⁷	5.3363 × 10¹⁷
中子注量/n·cm^–2	镉上中子	7.6997 × 10¹⁰	1.0703 × 10¹¹	7.9182 × 10¹⁰
中子注量/n·cm^–2	热中子	1.2585 × 10⁸	1.0062 × 10¹⁰	7.4440 × 10⁹

DownLoad: CSV

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