-
地基激光干涉引力波探测器不仅首次发现引力波、开创了一个观测天文学的全新分支——引力波天文学，同时也是物理学相关领域前沿科学与先进技术的成功典范。为了实现引力波探测的目标，使引力波成为一个常态化的天文观测手段，全球主要地基引力波探测器经历了持续数十年的技术升级与改造。本文重点介绍LIGO、Virgo和KAGRA等探测器的升级历程，详细分析了其关键技术改进，包括激光功率增强、悬挂与隔振系统优化以及量子噪声抑制等方面进展。这些技术进步显著提升了探测器在10至几千赫兹的灵敏度，使其成功探测到数以百计的致密天体并合引力波信号。展望未来，第三代地基引力波探测器的建设将大幅度拓展引力波的探测能力，为物理学和天文学研究开辟新的视野。Gravitational wave astronomy has rapidly developed into a powerful means of probing compact objects and understanding the evolution of the Universe. To improve sensitivity and extend the detection band, ground-based laser interferometers such as LIGO, Virgo, and KAGRA have undergone continuous upgrades. This review summarizes their systematic development with an emphasis on noise sources and mitigation strategies. After outlining the principle of gravitational wave detection with laser interferometry, we analyze dominant noise sources including quantum vacuum fluctuations, thermal noise, and seismic disturbances, and introduce techniques such as frequency-dependent squeezed light, advanced seismic isolation, multi-stage suspensions, and cryogenic mirrors. For LIGO, we highlight the transition from the Initial to Advanced configurations, which enabled strain sensitivities of the order of 10-24/√Hz and led directly to the first detection GW150914 and over one hundred subsequent events during O1 to O4. The unique superattenuator system of Virgo and its recent implementation of squeezed light, as well as the underground design of KAGRA and the use of cryogenic sapphire test masses, represent different approaches to suppress low-frequency and thermal noise. In addition, we compare the technical routes adopted by different detectors and summarize the lessons learned from their upgrades, which provide valuable guidance for future detector designs. Finally, we present next-generation projects, including LIGO Voyager, the Cosmic Explorer and the Einstein Telescope, which aim to achieve up to orders of magnitude improvements in sensitivity and provide new research opportunities for gravitational-wave cosmology and fundamental physics. Overall, the evolution of detector technologies has been the key driver of progress in gravitational wave astronomy, and the forthcoming facilities will transform our ability to explore the Universe.
-
Keywords:
- gravitational wave /
- laser interferometer /
- ground-based gravitational wave detection /
- astrophysics
-
[1] Einstein A 1915 Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin (Math. Phys.) 831 1915
[2] Danzmann K, Team L S, et al. 1996 Class. Quantum Grav. 13 A247
[3] Luo J, Chen L S, Duan H Z, Gong Y G, Hu S, Ji J, Liu Q, Mei J, Milyukov V, Sazhin M, et al. 2016 Class. Quantum Grav. 33 035010
[4] Luo Z, Guo Z, Jin G, Wu Y, Hu W 2020 Results Phys. 16 102918
[5] Weber J 1969 Phys. Rev. Lett. 22 1320
[6] Whitcomb S E 2008 Class. Quantum Grav. 25 114013
[7] Chen C M, Nester J M, Ni W T 2017 Chin. J. Phys. 55 142
[8] Sigg D, for the LIGO Science Collaboration, et al. 2006 Class. Quantum Grav. 23 S51
[9] Acernese F, Amico P, Arnaud N, Babusci D, Ballardin G, Barille R, Barone F, Barsuglia M, Beauville F, Bellachia F, et al. 2003 Class. Quantum Grav. 20 S609
[10] Somiya K, KAGRA Collaboration, et al. 2012 Class. Quantum Grav. 29 124007
[11] Saulson P R 1994 Fundamentals of interferometric gravitational wave detectors (World Scientific)
[12] Harms J, Chen Y, Chelkowski S, Franzen A, Vahlbruch H, Danzmann K, Schnabel R 2003 Phys. Rev. D 68 042001
[13] Harms J, Venkateswara K 2016 Class. Quantum Grav. 33 234001
[14] Trozzo L, Badaracco F 2022 Galaxies 10 20
[15] Harms J, Slagmolen B J, Adhikari R X, Miller M C, Evans M, Chen Y, Müller H, Ando M 2013 Phys. Rev. D 88 122003
[16] Driggers J C, Harms J, Adhikari R X 2012 Phys. Rev. D 86 102001
[17] Creighton J D, Anderson W G 2012 Gravitational-wave physics and astronomy: An introduction to theory, experiment and data analysis (John Wiley & Sons)
[18] M C 1981 Phys. Rev. D 23 1693
[19] Ganapathy D, Jia W, Nakano M, Xu V, Aritomi N, Cullen T, Kijbunchoo N, Dwyer S, Mullavey A, McCuller L, et al. 2023 Phys. Rev. X 13 041021
[20] LIGO Scientific Collaboration 2011 Nat. Phys. 7 962
[21] Yu H, McCuller L, Tse M, Kijbunchoo N, Barsotti L, Mavalvala N 2020 Nature 583 43
[22] Shapiro B, Adhikari R X, Aguiar O, Bonilla E, Fan D, Gan L, Gomez I, Khandelwal S, Lantz B, MacDonald T, et al. 2017 Cryogenics 81 83
[23] Saulson P R 1990 Phys. Rev. D 42 2437
[24] Hammond G, Cumming A, Hough J, Kumar R, Tokmakov K, Reid S, Rowan S 2012 Class. Quantum Grav. 29 124009
[25] Cumming A, Bell A, Barsotti L, Barton M, Cagnoli G, Cook D, Cunningham L, Evans M, Hammond G, Harry G, et al. 2012 Class. Quantum Grav. 29 035003
[26] Harry G M, Gretarsson A M, Saulson P R, Kittelberger S E, Penn S D, Startin W J, Rowan S, Fejer M M, Crooks D, Cagnoli G, et al. 2002 Class. Quantum Grav. 19 897
[27] Hong T, Yang H, Gustafson E K, Adhikari R X, Chen Y 2013 Phys. Rev. D 87 082001
[28] Cole G D, Zhang W, Martin M J, Ye J, Aspelmeyer M 2013 Nat. Photonics 7 644
[29] Kondratiev N, Gurkovsky A, Gorodetsky M 2011 Phys. Rev. D 84 022001
[30] Zhou R, Molina-Ruiz M, Hellman F 2023 Class. Quantum Grav. 40 144001
[31] E Z M, E W S 1996 In Proceedings of the Seventh Marcel Grossman Meeting on recent developments in theoretical and experimental general relativity, gravitation, and relativistic field theories (SpringerVerlag, Berlin), p 1434
[32] Aasi J, Abbott B, Abbott R, Abbott T, Abernathy M, Ackley K, Adams C, Adams T, Addesso P, Adhikari R, et al. 2015 Class. Quantum Grav. 32 074001
[33] Abramovici A, Althouse W E, Drever R W, Gürsel Y, Kawamura S, Raab F J, Shoemaker D, Sievers L, Spero R E, Thorne K S, et al. 1992 science 256 325
[34] Accadia T, Acernese F, Antonucci F, Astone P, Ballardin G, Barone F, Barsuglia M, Basti A, Bauer T S, Bebronne M, et al. 2011 Class. Quantum Grav. 28 114002
[35] Willke B, Aufmuth P, Aulbert C, Babak S, Balasubramanian R, Barr B, Berukoff S, Bose S, Cagnoli G, Casey M M, et al. 2002 Class. Quantum Grav. 19 1377
[36] Takahashi R, collaboration T, et al. 2004 Class. Quantum Grav. 21 S403
[37] Acernese F, Agathos M, Agatsuma K, Aisa D, Allemandou N, Allocca A, Amarni J, Astone P, Balestri G, Ballardin G, et al. 2014 Class. Quantum Grav. 32 024001
[38] KAGRA Collaboration 2019 Nat. Astron. 3 35
[39] LIGO Scientific Collaboration 2024. https://www.ligo.caltech.edu
[40] Abbott B, Abbott R, Adhikari R, Ageev A, Allen B, Amin R, Anderson S, Anderson W, Araya M, Armandula H, et al. 2004 Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. 517 154
[41] Adhikari R X, González G, Landry M, O’Reilly B 2003 Class. Quantum Grav. 20
[42] Abbott B, Abbott R, Adhikari R, Ageev A, Agresti J, Allen B, Allen J, Amin R, Anderson S, Anderson W, et al. 2005 Phys. Rev. D 72 062001
[43] Aasi J, Abadie J, Abbott B, Abbott R, Abbott T, Abernathy M, Accadia T, Acernese F, Adams C, Adams T, et al. 2015 Class. Quantum Grav. 32 115012
[44] Ballmer S, Frolov V, Lawrence R, Kells W, Moreno G, Mason K, Ottaway D, Smith M, Vorvick C, Willems P, et al. 2005 LIGO-Document: LIGO-T050064-00-R
[45] Fritschel P, Bork R, González G, Mavalvala N, Ouimette D, Rong H, Sigg D, Zucker M 2001 Appl. Opt. 40 4988
[46] Fricke T T, Smith-Lefebvre N D, Abbott R, Adhikari R, Dooley K L, Evans M, Fritschel P, Frolov V V, Kawabe K, Kissel J S, et al. 2012 Class. Quantum Grav. 29 065005
[47] Driggers J, Frolov V, Atkinson D, Miao H, Landry M, Adhikari R, DeRosa R 2010 LIGO-Document: LIGO-P1000088
[48] Schofield 2010 LIGO-Document:LIGO-G1000923
[49] Smith N D 2012 Techniques for improving the readout sensitivity of gravitational wave antennae. Ph.d. dissertation, (Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
[50] Abbott B P, Abbott R, Abbott T, Abernathy M, Acernese F, Ackley K, Adams C, Adams T, Addesso P, Adhikari R X, et al. 2016 Phys. Rev. Lett. 116 061102
[51] Somiya K, Chen Y, Kawamura S, Mio N 2006 Phys. Rev. D 73 122005
[52] Kwee P, Bogan C, Danzmann K, Frede M, Kim H, King P, Pöld J, Puncken O, Savage R L, Seifert F, et al. 2012 Opt. Express 20 10617
[53] P F 2003 In Gravitational-Wave Detection, vol. 4856. p 282. (SPIE)
[54] Gretarsson A M, Harry G M, Penn S D, Saulson P R, Startin W J, Rowan S, Cagnoli G, Hough J 2000 Phys. Lett. A 270 108
[55] Matichard F, Lantz B, Mittleman R, Mason K, Kissel J, Abbott B, Biscans S, McIver J, Abbott R, Abbott S, et al. 2015 Class. Quantum Grav. 32 185003
[56] De Rosa R, Garufi F, Milano L, Mosca S, Persichetti G 2010 In Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 228 (IOP Publishing), p 012018
[57] Martynov D V, Hall E, Abbott B, Abbott R, Abbott T, Adams C, Adhikari R, Anderson R, Anderson S, Arai K, et al. 2016 Phys. Rev. D 93 112004
[58] Evans M, Gras S, Fritschel P, Miller J, Barsotti L, Martynov D, Brooks A, Coyne D, Abbott R, Adhikari R X, et al. 2015 Phys. Rev. Lett. 114 161102
[59] Braginsky V B, Strigin S E, Vyatchanin S P 2002 Phys. Lett. A 305 111
[60] Abbott B, Abbott R, Abbott T, Abernathy M, Acernese F, Ackley K, et al. 2016 Class. Quantum Grav. 33 134001
[61] Abbott B P, Abbott R, Abbott T D, Acernese F, Ackley K, Adams C, Adams T, Addesso P, Adhikari R X, Adya V B, et al. 2017 Phys. Rev. D 96 062002
[62] Abbott B P, Abbott R, Abbott T, Abraham S, Acernese F, Ackley K, Adams C, Adhikari R, Adya V, Affeldt C, et al. 2019 Phys. Rev. X 9 031040
[63] Davis D, Massinger T, Lundgren A, Driggers J C, Urban A L, Nuttall L 2019 Class. Quantum Grav. 36 055011
[64] Abbott B P, Abbott R, Abbott T, Acernese F, Ackley K, Adams C, Adams T, Addesso P, Adhikari R X, Adya V B, et al. 2017 Phys. Rev. Lett. 119 161101
[65] Biscans S, Gras S, Blair C, Driggers J, Evans M, Fritschel P, Hardwick T, Mansell G 2019 Phys. Rev. D 100 122003
[66] Mow-Lowry C M, Martynov D 2019 Class. Quantum Grav. 36 245006
[67] Aasi J, Abadie J, Abbott B, Abbott R, Abbott T, Abernathy M, Adams C, Adams T, Addesso P, Adhikari R, et al. 2013 Nat. Photonics 7 613
[68] Zhao Y, Aritomi N, Capocasa E, Leonardi M, Eisenmann M, Guo Y, Polini E, Tomura A, Arai K, Aso Y, et al. 2020 Phys. Rev. Lett. 124 171101
[69] Dwyer S E 2013 Quantum noise reduction using squeezed states in LIGO. Ph.D. Dissertation, (Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
[70] Billingsley G, Yamamoto H, Zhang L 2017 ASPE 66 78
[71] Brooks A F, Vajente G, Yamamoto H, Abbott R, Adams C, Adhikari R X, Ananyeva A, Appert S, Arai K, Areeda J S, et al. 2021 Appl. Opt. 60 4047
[72] Abbott R, Abbott T, Abraham S, Acernese F, Ackley K, Adams A, Adams C, Adhikari R, Adya V, Affeldt C, et al. 2021 Phys. Rev. X 11 021053
[73] Dolesi R, Hueller M, Nicolodi D, Tombolato D, Vitale S, Wass P, Weber W J, Evans M, Fritschel P, Weiss R, et al. 2011 Phys. Rev. D 84 063007
[74] Mitrofanov V, Prokhorov L, Tokmakov K, Willems P 2004 Class. Quantum Grav. 21 S1083
[75] Abbott R, Abbott T, Acernese F, Ackley K, Adams C, Adhikari N, Adhikari R, Adya V, Affeldt C, Agarwal D, et al. 2023 Phys. Rev. X 13 041039
[76] Capote E, Jia W, Aritomi N, Nakano M, Xu V, Abbott R, Abouelfettouh I, Adhikari R, Ananyeva A, Appert S, et al. 2025 Phys. Rev. D 111 062002
[77] Buikema A, Cahillane C, Mansell G, Blair C, Abbott R, Adams C, Adhikari R, Ananyeva A, Appert S, Arai K, et al. 2020 Phys. Rev. D 102 062003
[78] Soni S, Berger B, Davis D, Di Renzo F, Effler A, Ferreira T, Glanzer J, Goetz E, González G, Helmling-Cornell A, et al. 2025 Class. Quantum Grav. 42 085016
[79] Jia W, Xu V, Kuns K, Nakano M, Barsotti L, Evans M, Mavalvala N, Collaboration† L S, Abbott R, Abouelfettouh I, et al. 2024 Science 385 1318
[80] Collaboration L S 2022 LIGO-Document: LIGO-T2200287-v2
[81] Abbott B, Abbott R, Adhikari R, Ajith P, Allen B, Allen G, Amin R, Anderson S, Anderson W, Arain M, et al. 2009 Rep. Prog. Phys. 72 076901
[82] Virgo Collaboration 2024. https://www.virgo-gw.eu
[83] Acernese F, Alshourbagy M, Amico P, Antonucci F, Aoudia S, Arun K, Astone P, Avino S, Baggio L, Ballardin G, et al. 2008 Class. Quantum Grav. 25 184001
[84] Accadia T, Swinkels B, forthe VIRGO Collaboration, et al. 2010 Class. Quantum Grav. 27 084002
[85] Braccini S, Barsotti L, Bradaschia C, Cella G, Di Virgilio A, Ferrante I, Fidecaro F, Fiori I, Frasconi F, Gennai A, et al. 2005 Astropart. Phys. 23 557
[86] Lorenzini M, on behalf ofthe Virgo Collaboration, et al. 2010 Class. Quantum Grav. 27 084021
[87] Bersanetti D, Patricelli B, Piccinni O J, Piergiovanni F, Salemi F, Sequino V 2021 Universe 7 322
[88] Di Pace S, Collaboration V, et al. 2021 Phys. Scr. 96 124054
[89] Naticchioni L, Collaboration V, et al. 2018 In Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 957 (IOP Publishing), p 012002
[90] Rocchi A, Coccia E, Fafone V, Malvezzi V, Minenkov Y, Sperandio L 2012 In Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 363 (IOP Publishing), p 012016
[91] De Rossi C, Brooks J, Casanueva Diaz J, Chiummo A, Genin E, Gosselin M, Leroy N, Mantovani M, Montanari B, Nocera F, Pillant G 2020 Galaxies 8 87
[92] Collette C, Boudart V, Cudell J R, Collaboration L S, Collaboration V, et al. 2023 In yes (Institute of Physics)
[93] Garufi F 2024 Ground-based and Airborne Telescopes X 13094 573
[94] Acernese F, Agathos M, Ain A, Albanesi S, Alléné C, Allocca A, Amato A, Andia M, Andrade T, Andres N, et al. 2023 In J. Phys.: Conf. Ser., vol. 2429 (IOP Publishing), p 012040
[95] KAGRA Collaboration 2024. https://gwcenter.icrr.u-tokyo.ac.jp
[96] Wang H, Aso Y, Leonardi M, Eisenmann M, Hirose E, Billingsley G, Kokeyama K, Ushiba T, Tamaki M, Michimura Y 2024 Phys. Rev. D 110 082007
[97] Michimura Y, Wang H, Salces-Carcoba F, Wipf C, Brooks A, Arai K, Adhikari R X 2024 Phys. Rev. D 109 022009
[98] Y I, Collaboration K 2024 In 38th International Cosmic Ray Conference. p 1555
[99] Akiyama Y, Akutsu T, Ando M, Arai K, Arai Y, Araki S, Araya A, Aritomi N, Asada H, Aso Y, et al. 2019 Class. Quantum Grav. 36 095015
[100] Abac A, Abbott R, Abouelfettouh I, Acernese F, Ackley K, Adhicary S, Adhikari N, Adhikari R, Adkins V, Agarwal D, et al. 2024 arXiv:2410.16565[astro-ph.HE]
[101] Akutsu T, Ando M, Aoumi M, Araya A, Aso Y, Baiotti L, Bajpai R, Cannon K, Chen A Y, Chen D, et al. 2025 arXiv:2508.03392[astro-ph.HE]
[102] Adhikari R X, Arai K, Brooks A, Wipf C, Aguiar O, Altin P, Barr B, Barsotti L, Bassiri R, Bell A, et al. 2020 Class. Quantum Grav. 37 165003
[103] Adhikari R, Arai K, Brooks A, Salces-Carcoba F, Wipf C 2023 LIGO-Document:LIGO-G1601461
[104] Team L V 2016 LIGO-Document: LIGO-G1602258-v1
[105] Adhikari R X, Brooks A 2024 LIGO-Document: LIGO-T1400226
[106] Hall E D 2022 Galaxies 10 90
[107] Reitze D, Adhikari R X, Ballmer S, Barish B, Barsotti L, Billingsley G, Brown D A, Chen Y, Coyne D, Eisenstein R, et al. 2019 arXiv:1907.04833
[108] Evans M, Adhikari R X, Afle C, Ballmer S W, Biscoveanu S, Borhanian S, Brown D A, Chen Y, Eisenstein R, Gruson A, et al. 2021 arXiv:2109.09882
[109] Branchesi M, Maggiore M, Alonso D, Badger C, Banerjee B, Beirnaert F, Belgacem E, Bhagwat S, Boileau G, Borhanian S, et al. 2023 JCAP 2023 068
[110] Committee E S 2020 ET-Document: Design Report Update 2020 Technical Report
[111] Brown D D, Miao H, Collins C, Mow-Lowry C, Töyrä D, Freise A 2017 Phys. Rev. D 96 062003
计量
- 文章访问数: 148
- PDF下载量: 1
- 被引次数: 0
下载:
