Integration and applications of two-dimensional materials

YANG Gaochen; MA Chenlong; XU Langlang; SHI Wenhao; HUANG Xinyu; SUN Mingjun; BI Ming; HE Xiao; MENG Xiaohan; LYU Shengjie; LIN Weijia; HE Min; TONG Lei; YE Lei

doi:10.7498/aps.75.20251386

Abstract

As Moore’s Law encounters limitations in scaling device physical dimensions and reducing computational power consumption, traditional silicon-based integrated circuit (IC) technologies, which have enjoyed half a century of success, are facing unprecedented challenges. These limitations are especially apparent in emerging fields such as artificial intelligence, big data processing, and high-performance computing, where the demand for computational power and energy efficiency is growing. Therefore, the exploration of novel materials and hardware architectures is crucial to address these challenges. Two-dimensional (2D) materials have become ideal candidates for the next-generation electronic devices and integrated circuits (ICs) due to their unique physical properties such as the absence of dangling bonds, high carrier mobility, tunable band gaps, and high photonic responses. Notably, 2D materials such as graphene, transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), and hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) have demonstrated immense potential in electronics, optoelectronics, and flexible sensing applications.This paper comprehensively reviews the recent advancements in the application of 2D materials in integrated circuits, analyzing the challenges and solutions related to large-scale integration, device design, functional circuit modules, and three-dimensional integration. Through a detailed examination of the basic properties of 2D materials, their constituent functional devices, and multifunctional integrated circuits, this paper presents a series of innovative ideas and methods, demonstrating the promising application prospects of 2D materials in future ICs.The research method involves a detailed analysis of the physical properties of common 2D materials such as graphene, TMDs, and h-BN, with typical application cases explored. This paper discusse how to utilize the excellent properties of these materials to fabricate high-performance single-function devices, integrated circuit modules, and 3D integrated chips, especially focusing on solving the challenges related to large-scale growth, device integration, and interface engineering of 2D materials. The comparison of the performance and applications between various materials demonstrates the unique advantages of 2D materials in the semiconductor industry and their potential in IC design.Although 2D materials perform well in laboratory environments, there are still significant challenges in practical applications, especially in large-scale production, device integration, and three-dimensional integration. Achieving high-quality, large-area growth of 2D materials, reducing interface defects, and improving device stability and reliability are still core issues that need to be addressed in research and industry. However, with the continuous advancements in 2D material fabrication technology and optimization of integration processes, these challenges are gradually being overcome, and the application prospects of 2D materials are expanding.

Keywords:

Authors and contacts

School of Integrated Circuits, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China

Corresponding author: TONG Lei, leitong@hust.edu.cn ; YE Lei, leiye@hust.edu.cn

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Cited By

图 1 (a) 石墨烯的三维结构图^[22]; (b) 石墨烯的六角蜂窝状晶格, 每个晶胞含有A, B两个原子^[22]; (c) 石墨烯的三维能带结构^[24]

Figure 1. (a) 3D structure of graphene^[22]; (b) hexagonal honeycomb lattice of graphene with two atoms (A and B) per unit cell^[22]; (c) 3D band structure of graphene^[24].

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图 2 (a) MoS₂的三维结构图^[36]; (b) 2H, 1T和1T'相单层TMDs的原子结构, 图中指出了晶格矢量与原子平面的堆叠方式^[30]; (c) 计算得到的厚度递减的2H-MoS₂样品的能带结构的演化^[30]

Figure 2. (a) 3D structure of molybdenum disulphide^[36]; (b) atomic structure of single layers of TMDs in their trigonal prismatic (2H), distorted octahedral (1T) and dimerized (1T') phases, lattice vectors and the stacking of atomic planes are indicated^[30]; (c) evolution of the band structure of 2H‑MoS₂ calculated from samples of decreasing thickness^[30].

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图 3 逻辑器件的结构示意图与电学特性　(a) MoS₂ n型晶体管^[52]; (b) WSe₂ p型晶体管^[56]; (c) ReSe₂双极性晶体管^[59]; (d) WSe₂同质结晶体管^[60]

Figure 3. Schematic diagram and electrical characteristics of logic devices: (a) MoS₂ n-type transistor^[52]; (b) WSe₂ p-type transistor^[56]; (c) ReSe₂ bipolar transistor^[59]; (d) WSe₂ homojunction transistor^[60].

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图 4 存储器件的结构示意图与电学特性　(a) InSe/hBN/MLG浮栅型闪存^[70]; (b) WSe₂/Al₂O₃/HfO₂/Al₂O₃电荷俘获型闪存^[69]; (c) InSe/h-BN/CIPS铁电存储器^[73]; (d) 3R-MoS₂滑移铁电存储器^[74]; (e) MoTe₂相变型忆阻器^[76]; (f) Ag/h-BN/Au导电细丝型忆阻器^[77]

Figure 4. Schematic diagram and electrical characteristics of memory devices: (a) InSe/hBN/MLG floating gate flash memory^[70]; (b) WSe₂/Al₂O₃/HfO₂/Al₂O₃ charge trapping flash memory^[69]; (c) InSe/h-BN/CIPS ferroelectric memory^[73]; (d) 3R-MoS₂ sliding ferroelectric memory^[74]; (e) MoTe₂ phase change memristor^[76]; (f) Ag/h-BN/Au conductive filaments memristor^[77].

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图 5 传感器的结构示意图与电学特性　(a) MoS₂光电探测器^[84]; (b) n-MoS₂/p-GaSe嗅觉传感器^[88]; (c) MoS₂压力传感器^[91]; (d) MoS₂温度传感器^[92]

Figure 5. Structure and electrical characteristics of the sensors: (a) MoS₂ photodetector^[84]; (b) n-MoS₂/p-GaSe olfactory sensor^[88]; (c) MoS₂ pressure sensor^[91]; (d) MoS₂ temperature sensor^[92].

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图 6 多功能融合器件的构示意图与电学特性　(a) WSe₂/LNO铁电晶体管^[95]; (b) Bi₂O₂Se/h-BN/Gr光电浮栅晶体管^[96]; (c) NbOI₂双模态突触晶体管^[97]

Figure 6. Schematic diagram and electrical characteristics of multifunctional hybrid devices: (a) WSe₂/LNO ferroelectric transistor^[95]; (b) Bi₂O₂Se/h-BN/graphene photonic floating-gate transistor^[96]; (c) NbOI₂ bimodal synaptic transistor^[97].

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图 7 神经形态器件突触和神经元的结构示意图与电学特性　(a) WS₂忆阻器突触^[101]; (b) MoS₂浮栅突触^[102]; (c) HZO/SnS₂铁电突触^[103]; (d) MoS₂/h-BN/Gra神经元^[104]; (e) WSe₂冲击电离晶体管神经元^[105]

Figure 7. Schematic diagram of synapse and neuron structures in neuromorphic devices and their electrical characteristics: (a) WS₂ memristor synapse^[101]; (b) MoS₂ floating-gate synapse^[102]; (c) HZO/SnS₂ ferroelectric synapse^[103]; (d) MoS₂/h-BN/graphene neuron^[104]; (e) WSe₂ impact ionization transistor neuron^[105].

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图 8 (a) 内存逻辑单元阵列的制造的12 mm×12 mm芯片的照片^[114]; (b) 基于 MOCVD生长的单层MoS₂的浮栅存储器件的三维视图^[114]; (c) AND FET^[115]; (d) OR-FET^[115]

Figure 8. (a) Photograph of a fabricated 12 mm×12 mm die with logic-in-memory cell arrays^[114]; (b) 3D view of a floating gate memory device based on monolayer MoS₂ grown by MOCVD^[114]; (c) AND FET^[115]; (d) OR-FET^[115].

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图 9 (a) 8 位DAC和ADC简化电路结构图^[116]; (b) MoS₂ FET阵列^[116]; (c) 数据转换过程, 包括数字信号输入V_in1—V_in8^[116]

Figure 9. (a) 8-bit DAC and ADC ^[116]; (b) cascaded MoS₂ FET arrays^[116]; (c) entire data conversion process, including digital signal input V_in1–V_in8^[116].

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图 10 (a) SRAM电路图^[117]; (b) SRAM器件图^[117]; (c) 异构2T-eDRAM的示意图^[118]; (d) 相应的等效电路图^[118]; (e) Si-MoS₂ 异构垂直2T-eDRAM的示意图^[118]; (f) 2T-eDRAM的SEM图像^[118]

Figure 10. (a) SRAM circuit diagram^[117]; (b) SRAM device diagram^[117]; (c) schematic diagram of the heterogeneous 2T-eDRAM^[118]; (d) corresponding equivalent circuit diagram^[118]; (e) schematic diagram of the Si-MoS₂ heterogeneous vertical 2T-eDRAM^[118]; (f) SEM image of the 2T-eDRAM^[118].

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图 11 (a) 运算放大器的实验装置^[95]; (b) 运算放大器相应的等效电路图^[95]; (c) 运算放大器的光学图像^[95]; (d) 原始长度为50 mm的未弯曲CPW TL^[119]; (e) 弯曲的CPW TL, 端口到端口的距离为40 mm^[119]; (f) 弯曲的CPW TL, 端口到端口的距离为30 mm^[119]; (g) 弯曲的CPW TL, 端口到端口的距离为20 mm^[119]

Figure 11. (a) Experimental setup of the operational amplifier^[95]; (b) corresponding equivalent circuit diagram of the operational amplifier^[95]; (c) optical image of the operational amplifier^[95]; (d) unbent CPW TL with an original length of 50 mm^[119]; (e) bent CPW TL with a port-to-port distance of 40 mm^[119]; (f) bent CPW TL with a port-to-port distance of 30 mm^[119]; (g) bent CPW TL with a port-to-port distance of 20 mm^[119].

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图 12 (a) 多聚物辅助的转移方法^[129]; (b) 由MoS₂ FETs与VRRAMs单片3D集成的1T-4R结构^[132]; (c) 单片3D集成的CMOS与非门示意图^[127]; (d) 通过范德瓦耳斯层压制作的10层单片3D集成系统^[126]

Figure 12. (a) Polymer-assisted transfer^[129]; (b) monolithic 3D integration of MoS₂ transistors and VRRAMs into a 1T-4R structure^[132]; (c) schematic of a monolithic 3D-integrated CMOS NAND circuit^[127]; (d) schematic of a 10-tier monolithic 3D system integrated by van der Waals lamination^[126].

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图 13 (a) 单晶TMD阵列的低温生长示意图, 突出展示了在图案化结构的边缘或角落成核的趋势^[135]; (b) 无缝单片3D集成示意图^[135]

Figure 13. (a) Schematic showing low-temperature growth of single-crystalline TMD array, highlighting the tendency of nuclei to form at edges or corners of the patterned structure^[135]; (b) schematic of seamless monolithic 3D integration^[135].

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图 14 (a) 用于光电器件的二维材料与硅基CMOS电路的3D集成^[137]; (b) SOI-MoS₂异质3D堆叠CFET示意图^[138]; (c) 二维材料-硅基电路异质3D集成流程图^[138]; (d) 由14层vdW异质结构垂直堆叠搭建的3D与非逻辑门^[143]

Figure 14. (a) 3D integration of 2D materials with silicon logic for optoelectronics^[137]; (b) schematic of the SOI-MoS₂ heterogeneous 3D-stacked CFET^[138]; (c) schematic of the 2D-silicon heterogeneous 3D integration process^[138]; (d) 3D NAND logic made of vertically stacked 14-layer vdW heterostructure^[143].

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图 15 二维材料的集成应用　(a) 基于二维材料的逻辑芯片^[149]; (b) 基于二维材料的边缘AI芯片^[154]; (c) 基于二维材料的柔性电子^[158]; (d) 基于二维材料的感算一体^[165]; (e) 基于二维材料的光电芯片^[167]

Figure 15. Integrated applications of two-dimensional materials: (a) Logic chips based on two-dimensional materials^[149]; (b) edge AI chips based on two-dimensional materials^[154]; (c) flexible electronics based on two-dimensional materials^[158]; (d) sensing-computing integration based on two-dimensional materials^[165]; (e) optoelectronic chips based on two-dimensional materials^[167].

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表 1 二维材料电学性质对比

Table 1. Comparison of the electronic properties of 2D materials.

材料类型	材料名称	带隙/eV	迁移率 /cm²·(V·s)^–1	开关比	文献
单元素二维材料	石墨烯	0	2×10⁴	100	[25]
	黑磷	0.3—2	~10³	10⁶	[39]
	碲	0.31—0.92	1485	~10⁴	[40]
	硅烯	1.1	329	~10⁶	[41]
TMDs	MoS₂	1.8	217	>10⁶	[31]
	WSe₂	1.2—1.6	~250	10⁸	[28]
	HfS₂	~1.45	7.6	>10⁸	[42]
III-VI族化合物	GaTe	1.7	0.2	—	[43]
III-VI族化合物	InSe	~1.26	10³—10⁴	10⁸	[44]
二维氮化物	GaN	~5.0	160	~10⁶	[45]
二维氮化物	h-BN	5.95—6.1	—	—	[37]
二维金属氧化物	MoO₃	3.3	1. 1×10³	<10³	[46]
二维有机化合物	Ni₃(HITP)₂	—	45.4	2.29×10³	[47]

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表 2 二维材料与传统硅基材料晶体管性能对比

Table 2. Comparison of performance between two-dimensional materials and traditional silicon-based materials in transistors

材料类型	材料名称	器件沟道尺寸/nm	跨导/(μS·μm^–1)	亚阈值摆幅/(mV·dec^–1)	开关比	静态功耗/W	文献
Si基	MOS	45	~0. 1	—	<10⁵	< 10^–9	[61]
	GAA-Si	4560	15	63	10¹⁰	< 10^–11	[62]
	Fin-Si	14+24×2	433.87	67.02	10⁷	< 10^–13	[63]
TMDs	2L-MoS₂	400	~10	65	10⁶	< 10^–13	[64]
	1L-MoS₂	—	~10	76	10⁸	< 10^–15	[52]
	2L-WSe₂	120	80	200	10⁸	< 10^–10	[65]
	ML-WSe₂	1500	—	875	10⁷	< 10^–13	[66]
Ⅲ—Ⅵ族化合物	InSe	10	6000	75	10⁷	< 10^–15	[67]

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表 3 二维材料与传统硅基材料非易失器件性能对比

Table 3. Comparison of performance between two-dimensional materials and traditional silicon-based materials in non-volatile devices.

材料类型	材料名称	存储状态数目	编程速度/ns	编程周期/次	保留时间/s	开关比	文献
Si基	HfO₂/Al₂O₃	≥2	>1000	>10³	10⁸	>10³	[78]
Si基	SiO₂/nc-Si/SiN_x	≥2	>10×10⁵	>10⁵	>10⁵	5×10⁴	[79]
TMDs	MoS₂	≥30	—	>10³	>2×10²	>10⁵	[80]
FGT	WSe₂	≥4	106	8×10⁶	10⁸	>10³	[81]
FGT	InSe	≥4	21	>2×10³	10⁸	10⁹	[70]
FE FET	CuInP₂S₆	≥4	—	>10³	>10⁴	>10⁴	[73]
FE FET	3R-MoS₂	≥9	—	>10⁴	10⁸	>10⁶	[74]
MRAM	h-BN	≥4	—	—	>10⁴	10⁴	[77]

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表 4 二维材料的集成应用总结

Table 4. Summary of integrated applications of two-dimensional materials.

材料	集成方法	器件数量	单元器件平均面积/μm²	应用领域	参考文献
MoS₂	生长	115	5217	逻辑	[147]
MoS₂	生长	156	—	逻辑	[148]
MoS₂	生长	5900	1525	逻辑	[149]
h-BN	2D+CMOS	—	0.053(功能区)	边缘AI	[139]
HfSe₂	转移	1024	1503	边缘AI	[153]
WSe₂/h-BN/ MoS₂	转移	—	250000	边缘AI	[154]
MoS₂	转移	—	—	柔性电子	[156]
MoS₂	转移	—	30000	柔性电子	[157]
MoS₂	转移	100+	15600	柔性电子	[158]
石墨烯	2D+CMOS	101124	3(功能区)	光电芯片	[137]
石墨烯	2D+CMOS	16	111111	光电芯片	[162]
h-BN	2D+CMOS	—	3.14(功能区)	光电芯片	[163]
WSe₂	2D+CMOS	9	115.5	感算一体	[165]
HbS₂/MoS₂	2D+CMOS	100	7412	感算一体	[166]
MoS₂	生长	619	11.650	感算一体	[167]

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