Experimental study of ultra-low noise photodetectors in 0.1 mHz–1 Hz frequency band

SHANG Xin; LI Fan; MA Zhenglei; HUANG Tianshi; DANG Hao; LI Wei; YIN Wangbao; TIAN Long; CHEN Lirong; ZHENG Yaohui

doi:10.7498/aps.74.20241635

Abstract

Laser intensity noise suppression in the millihertz frequency band is essential for space-based gravitational wave detection to ensure the sensitivity of the interferometer. Optoelectronic feedback technology is one of the most effective methods of suppressing laser intensity noise. The noise of the photodetector that is the first-stage component in the feedback loop, directly couples into the feedback loop, thus significantly affecting the laser intensity noise. In this paper, starting from the requirement of suppressing laser intensity noise in the 0.1 mHz–1 Hz frequency band for space-based gravitational wave detection, the factors affecting the electronics of photodetectors at extremely low frequencies are analyzed in detail. Using the low dark current characteristic of photodiodes in photovoltaic mode, a zero-bias voltage scheme is adopted to reduce the dark noise of the photodiode. A transimpedance amplification circuit is designed using an integrated operational amplifier with zero offset voltage drift and low-temperature drift metal foil resistors, thereby optimizing the transimpedance capacitor and follower circuit to reduce 1/f noise in the circuit. Active temperature control is employed to stabilize the responsivity of photodiode, and additional measures such as using a homemade low-noise power supply and shielding interference are taken to further reduce the noise. Ultimately, an ultra-low electronic noise photodetector operating in the 0.1 mHz–1 Hz frequency band is developed. A homemade intensity noise evaluation system is used to comprehensively assess the noise both in the time domain and in the frequency domain. The constant noise characteristics of the homemade detector are estimated experimentally. The experimental results show that the electronic noise spectral density of the homemade detector reaches 2×10^–6 V/Hz^1/2 in the 0.1 mHz–1 Hz frequency band, and the electronic noise of the detector does not vary with optical power. The detector achieves a gain of 35 kV/W at 1064 nm. The noise performance of the detector is two orders of magnitude lower than the laser intensity noise requirement (1×10^–4 V/Hz^1/2) for space-based gravitational wave detection, providing a critical component and technical support for high-gain optoelectronic feedback control and laser intensity noise suppression in space-based gravitational wave detection.

Keywords:

space-based gravitational wave detection /
laser intensity noise /
photodetector /
millihertz band

Authors and contacts

1.
State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics Technologies and Devices, Institute of Opto-Electronics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
2.
State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics Technologies and Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
3.
Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
4.
College of Physics and Electronic Engineering, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China

Corresponding author: LI Wei, xliwei@sxu.edu.cn ; TIAN Long, tianlong@sxu.edu.cn ;

Funds: Project supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (Grant No. 2020YFC2200402), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 62225504, U22A6003, 62035015, 12174234, 12274275), the Fundamental Research Program of Shanxi Province, China (Grant No. 202303021224006), and the Key R&D Program of Shanxi, China (Grant No. 202302150101015).

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References

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[14]	Luo Z, Wang Y, Wu Y, Mei J, Zhong Y, Hu Y, Yang S, Chen P, Chen X, Chen Y 2021 Prog. Theor. Exp. Phys. 2021 05A108 Google Scholar
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[19]	李玉琼, 王璐钰, 王晨昱 2019 光学精密工程 27 1710 Google Scholar Li Y Q, Wang L Y, Wang C Y 2019 Opt. Precis. Eng. 27 1710 Google Scholar
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[22]	Robert K 2017 Understanding and Eliminating 1/f Noise https://www.analog.com/en/resources/analog-dialogue/articles/2017/04/21/10/42/understanding-and-eliminating-1-f-noise.html [2024-12-10]
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[25]	Cutler C, Thorne K S 2002 General Relativity and Gravitation (Singapore: World Scientific) pp72–111
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[31]	Graeme J G 1996 Photodiode Amplifiers: Op Amp Solutions (1st ed.) (New York: McGraw-Hill) pp21–23
[32]	Chilingarian A 1995 Pattern Recognit. Lett. 16 335
[33]	Chen X, Luo M, Hu R Z, Li R, Liang L J , Pang S Y 2019 J. Manuf. Process. 41 111 Google Scholar
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[35]	李番, 王嘉伟, 高子超, 李健博, 安炳南, 李瑞鑫, 白禹, 尹王保, 田龙, 郑耀辉 2022 物理学报 71 209501 Google Scholar Li F, Wang J W, Gao Z C, Li J B,An B N,Li R X,Bai Y,Yin W B,Tian L,Zheng Y H 2022 Acta Phys. Sin. 71 209501 Google Scholar

Cited By

图 1 0.1 mHz—1 Hz频段低噪声探测器原理图

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of a low-noise detector in the 0.1 mHz–1 Hz frequency band.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

图 2 探测器静态测量原理示意图

Figure 2. Schematic diagram illustrating the principle of static measurement in detectors.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

图 3 光电二极管不同工作模式下电子学噪声测试表征　(a) 时域测试图; (b) 频域测试图

Figure 3. Characterization of photodiode electronic noise test in different operating modes: (a) Date results in time-domain; (b) noise power spectrum obtained by LPSD algorithm.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

图 4 光电探测器在不同运放下电子学噪声测试表征　(a) 时域测试图; (b) 频域测试图

Figure 4. Photodetectors are characterized using different operating electronics noise tests: (a) Date results in time-domain; (b) noise power spectrum obtained by LPSD algorithm.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

图 5 光电探测器测试原理图, 其中Laser为固体激光器, ISO为光隔离器; λ/2为半波片, PBS为偏振分束器, Filter为光衰减器, PD为光电探测器; Meter为高精度数字万用表

Figure 5. Photodetector test diagram, where Laser is soild-state laser; ISO is optical isolator; λ/2 is half-wave-plate: PBS is polarization beam splitter; Filter is optical attenuator; PD is photodetector; Meter is high-precision digital multimeter.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

图 6 探测器输入输出线性度表征

Figure 6. Characterization of detector input and output linearity

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图 7 探测器线性度测试噪声谱表征　(a) 时域测试图; (b) 频域测试图

Figure 7. Detector linearity test noise spectral characterization: (a) Date results in time-domain; (b) noise power spectrum obtained by LPSD algorithm.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

表 1 三种低噪声运放芯片关键参数对比

Table 1. Comparison of key parameters of three low-noise operational amplifier chips

Operational Amplifier model	Offset voltage drift/(μV·℃^–1)	Input offset voltage/μV	Input offset current/nA	Input noise voltage V_p-p (0.1—10 Hz)/nV
AD8671	0.3	30	8	77
AD797	0.2	30	120	50
LTC1151	0.01	0.5	0.02	1500

DownLoad: CSV

[1]	Abbott B P, Abbott R, Abbott T D, Acernese F, Ackley K, Adams C, Adams T, Addesso P, Adhikari R X, Adya V B 2016 Phys. Rev. Lett. 116 061102 Google Scholar
[2]	Abbott R, Abbott T D, Abraham S, Acernese F, Ackley K, Adams C, Adhikari R X, Adya V B, Affeldt C, Agathos M 2020 Astrophys. J. Lett. 896 L44 Google Scholar
[3]	Abbott R, Abbott T D, Abraham S, Acernese F, Ackley K, Adams A, Adams C, Adhikari R X, Adya V B, Affeldt C 2020 Phys. Rev. Lett. 125 101102 Google Scholar
[4]	Sathyaprakash B S, Schutz B F 2009 Living Rev. Relativ. 12 2 Google Scholar
[5]	Jennrich O 2009 Class. Quantum Grav. 26 153001 Google Scholar
[6]	王在渊, 王洁浩, 李宇航, 柳强 2023 物理学报 72 054205 Google Scholar Wang Z Y, Wang J H, Li Y H, Liu Q 2023 Acta Phys. Sin. 72 054205 Google Scholar
[7]	Badaracco F, Harms J, De Rossi C, Martynov D, Swinkels B L, Shoda A, van Heijningen J, Staley A, Matone L, Boschi V, Ohashi M, Hild S, Naticchioni L 2021 Phys. Rev. D 104 042006 Google Scholar
[8]	李卫, 谢超帮, 李庆回, 鞠明健, 武志学, 郑耀辉 2023 量子光学学报 29 040201 Li W, Xie C B, Li Q H, Ju M J, Wu Z X, Zheng Y H 2023 Quantum Opt. 29 040201
[9]	李庆回, 李卫, 孙瑜, 王雅君, 田龙 , 陈力荣, 张鹏飞, 郑耀辉 2022 物理学报 71 164203 Google Scholar Li Q H, Li W, Sun Y, Wang Y J, Tian L,Cheng L R,Zhang P F, Zheng Y H 2022 Acta Phys. Sin. 71 164203 Google Scholar
[10]	Kwee P, Willke B, Danzmann K 2009 Opt. Lett. 34 2912 Google Scholar
[11]	刘骏杨, 韩逸凡, 陈力荣, 赵琴, 武延鹏, 李林, 王雅君, 郑耀辉 2025 量子光学学报 31 040201 Liu J Y, Han Y F, Chen L R, Zhao Q, Wu Y P, Li L, Wang Y J, Zheng Y H 2025 Quantum Opt. 31 040201
[12]	Vahlbruch H, Wilken D, Mechmet M, Willke B 2018 Phys. Rev. Lett. 121 173601 Google Scholar
[13]	Gao L, Zheng L A, Lu B, Shi S P, Tian L, Zheng Y H 2024 Light Sci. Appl. 13 294 Google Scholar
[14]	Luo Z, Wang Y, Wu Y, Mei J, Zhong Y, Hu Y, Yang S, Chen P, Chen X, Chen Y 2021 Prog. Theor. Exp. Phys. 2021 05A108 Google Scholar
[15]	Luo J, Chen L S, Duan H Z, Gong Y G, Hu S C, Ji J H, Liu Q, Mei J W, Milyukov V, Sazhin M, Shao C G, Toth V T, Tu H B, Wang Y M, Wang Y, Yeh H C, Zhan M S, Zhang Y, Zharov V, Zhou Z B 2016 Class. Quantum Grav. 33 035010 Google Scholar
[16]	Buchler B C, Huntington E H, Harb C C, Ralph T C 1998 Phys. Rev. A 57 1286 Google Scholar
[17]	Tröbs M 2005 Ph. D. Dissertation (Hannover: Leibniz University Hannover
[18]	张骥 2020 博士学位论文 (合肥: 中国科学技术大学) Zhang J 2020 Ph. D. Dissertation (Hefei: University of Science and Technology of China
[19]	李玉琼, 王璐钰, 王晨昱 2019 光学精密工程 27 1710 Google Scholar Li Y Q, Wang L Y, Wang C Y 2019 Opt. Precis. Eng. 27 1710 Google Scholar
[20]	王炜杰, 李番, 李健博, 鞠明健, 郑立昂, 田宇航, 尹王保, 田龙, 郑耀辉 2022 红外与激光工程 51 20220300 Google Scholar Wang W J, Li F, Li J B, Ju M J, Zheng L A, Tian Y H, Yin W B, Tian L, Zheng Y H 2022 Infrared Laser Eng. 51 20220300 Google Scholar
[21]	郑立昂, 李番, 王嘉伟, 李健博, 高丽, 贺子洋, 尚鑫, 尹王保, 田龙, 杨文海, 郑耀辉 2023 光子学报 52 0552220 Google Scholar Zheng L A, Li F, Wang J W, Li J B, Gao L, He Z Y, Shang X, Yin W B, Tian L, Yang W H, Zheng Y H 2023 Acta Photonica Sin. 52 0552220 Google Scholar
[22]	Robert K 2017 Understanding and Eliminating 1/f Noise https://www.analog.com/en/resources/analog-dialogue/articles/2017/04/21/10/42/understanding-and-eliminating-1-f-noise.html [2024-12-10]
[23]	Todd O, Amit P 2016 Measuring 2nV/√Hz Noise and 120 dB Supply Rejection on Linear Regulators https://www.analog.com/cn/resources/app-notes/an-159.html [2024-12-10]
[24]	Sallusti M, Gath P, Weise D, Rivas M, Vitelli M 2009 Class. Quantum Grav. 26 094015 Google Scholar
[25]	Cutler C, Thorne K S 2002 General Relativity and Gravitation (Singapore: World Scientific) pp72–111
[26]	Hayashida T, Nanjo T, Furukawa A, Yamamuka M 2017 Appl. Phys. Express 10 061003 Google Scholar
[27]	Li W S, Nomoto K, Pilla M, Pan M, Gao X, Jena D, Xing H G 2017 IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 64 1635 Google Scholar
[28]	Cooper J A Jr, Melloch M R, Singh R, Agarwal A, Palmour J W 2002 IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 49 665 Google Scholar
[29]	Zhou H J, Wang W Z, Cheng C Y, Zheng Y H 2015 IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 15 2101 Google Scholar
[30]	Using MCP6491 Op Amps for Photodetection Applications, Yang Zhen https://ww1.microchip.com/downloads/en/Appnotes/01494A.pdf [2024-12-10]
[31]	Graeme J G 1996 Photodiode Amplifiers: Op Amp Solutions (1st ed.) (New York: McGraw-Hill) pp21–23
[32]	Chilingarian A 1995 Pattern Recognit. Lett. 16 335
[33]	Chen X, Luo M, Hu R Z, Li R, Liang L J , Pang S Y 2019 J. Manuf. Process. 41 111 Google Scholar
[34]	Williams J 2001 Electrical Design News: The Magazine of the Electronics Industry 46 83
[35]	李番, 王嘉伟, 高子超, 李健博, 安炳南, 李瑞鑫, 白禹, 尹王保, 田龙, 郑耀辉 2022 物理学报 71 209501 Google Scholar Li F, Wang J W, Gao Z C, Li J B,An B N,Li R X,Bai Y,Yin W B,Tian L,Zheng Y H 2022 Acta Phys. Sin. 71 209501 Google Scholar

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