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Perovskite solar cells, as a promising next-generation photovoltaic technology for large-scale application, have demonstrated the advantages of high absorption coefficient, tunable bandgap, considerable photoelectric conversion efficiency and low-cost fabrication. However, the photoelectric conversion process within the device is still not understood clearly. One of the major reasons is that it is difficult to directly observe the space potential inside the device and its effect on the photogenerated charge carriers. The direct measurement and analysis of the space potential inside the device and the clarification of the intrinsic relationship between the space potential and the charge carrier micro-process under illumination and different electric field conditions can reveal the photoelectric conversion mechanism in depth, and thus providing the scientific research basis for the further development. Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM), a testing technology that is non-contact, can detect the space potential distribution without any damage to the device, demonstrating the great potential to unveil the working mechanism of perovskite solar cells accurately. Such a characterization method can work under vacuum condition. The KPFM combines Kelvin method of measuring contact potential difference with the scan probe microscopy to characterize internal carrier dynamic behavior with high resolution on a nanometer scale. The study of the spatial potential distribution of semiconductor device plays an important role in understanding the working mechanism of new perovskite solar cells. For example, under an open-circuit condition, the intensity and width of the electric field and space charge region can be obtained from the spatial potential distribution, and the bending direction of the energy band can be judged according to the increase or decrease of the potential. While in a short-circuit case, the generation and transport of charge carriers can be obtained. In this review, we mainly introduce the research progress of the space potential distribution and optoelectronic conversion mechanism in perovskite solar cells. The key mechanism of charge carrier generation, separation, transport and recombination are revealed by using KPFM to directly observe the space potential variations caused by light or electric field. We also prospect the issues and challenges in the future research.
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图 2 (a)通过开尔文探针力显微镜技术探测正式介孔结构器件的空间电势; (b)电池空间电势光致变化[23]
Figure 2. (a) Potential of mesoporous perovskite solar cells using Kelvin probe force microscopy (FTO, fluorine-doped tin oxide; HTM, hole-transport material); (b) space potential changes of perovskite solar cells under illumination (CPD, contact potential difference)[23].
图 3 (a)正式平面结构, 钙钛矿组分碘化铅过量和碘甲胺过量时对应的电池空间电势变化; (b)正式介孔结构、正式平面结构电池性能和理想因子与钙钛矿组分之间的关系[25]
Figure 3. (a) Kelvin probe force microscopy characterizations of perovskite solar cells for the mesoporous structures using MAI- and PbI2-Rich precursors; (b) photovoltaic performance of mesoporous and planar perovskite solar cells and ideality factor on PbI2/CH3NH3I(MAI) mole ratio[25].
图 4 (a)正式平面结构钙钛矿电池在未加偏压下的空间电势分布; (b)正式平面结构在不同电压下的空间电势及电场分布情况; (c)正式介孔结构在不同电压下的空间电势及电场分布情况[19]
Figure 4. (a) Potential distribution of mesoporous perovskite solar cells under Vb = 0 (TCO, transparent conducting oxide; PS, perovskite); (b) electrical potential and field profiling results on the planar device under different biases; (c) electrical potential and field profiling results on the optimized mesoporous device under different biases[19].
图 5 (a)二氧化锡正式平面结构钙钛矿电池在不同电压下的空间电势分布; (b) 100, (c) 150, (d) 200 ℃退火后处理的二氧化锡作为电荷传输材料的器件不同电压下的空间电势及电场分布情况[32]
Figure 5. (a) Potential difference of planar device based on SnO2 electron transfer layer, under different biases (fluorine-dopled SnO2, FTO; electron selective layer, ESL; hole selective layer, HSL); (b) 100, (c) 150, (d) 200 ℃ electrical potential and field profiling results of the device based on low-temperature thermal annealing of SnO2 electron transfer layer[32].
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[1] Kojima A, Teshima K, Shirai Y, Miyasaka T 2009 J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131 6050
Google Scholar
[2] Im J H, Lee C R, Lee J W, Park S W, Park N G 2011 Nanoscale 3 4088
Google Scholar
[3] Lee M M, Teuscher J, Miyasaka T, Murakami T N, Snaith H J 2012 Science 338 643
Google Scholar
[4] Cao Y, Wang N, Tian H, Guo J, Wei Y, Chen H, Miao Y, Zou W, Pan K, He Y, Cao H, Ke Y, Xu M, Wang Y, Yang M, Du K, Fu Z, Kong D, Dai D, Jin Y, Li G, Li H, Peng Q, Wang J, Huang W 2018 Nature 562 249
Google Scholar
[5] Lin K, Xing J, Quan L N, García de Arquer F P, Gong X, Lu J, Xie L, Zhao W, Zhang D, Yan C, Li W, Liu X, Lu Y, Kirman J, Sargent E H, Xiong Q, Wei Z 2018 Nature 562 245
Google Scholar
[6] Kim Y C, Kim K H, Son D Y, Jeong D N, Seo J Y, Choi Y S, Han I T, Lee S Y, Park N G 2017 Nature 550 87
Google Scholar
[7] Burschka J, Pellet N, Moon S J, Humphry-Baker R, Gao P, Nazeeruddin M K, Grätzel M 2013 Nature 499 316
Google Scholar
[8] Jeon N J, Noh J H, Kim Y C, Yang W S, Ryu S, Seok S I 2014 Nat. Mater. 13 897
Google Scholar
[9] Yang M J, Zhang T Y, Schulz P, Li Z, Li G, Kim D H, Guo N J, Berry J J, Zhu K, Zhao Y X 2016 Nat. Commun. 7 12305
[10] Ye F, Chen H, Xie F X, Tang W T, Yin M S, He J J, Bi E B, Wang Y B, Yang X D, Han L Y 2016 Energy Environ. Sci. 9 2295
Google Scholar
[11] Wang L, Zhou H, Hu J, Huang B, Sun M, Dong B, Zheng G, Huang Y, Chen Y, Li L, Xu Z, Li N, Liu Z, Chen Q, Sun L D, Yan C H 2019 Science 363 265
Google Scholar
[12] Chen W, Wu Y, Yue Y, Liu J, Zhang W, Yang X, Chen H, Bi E, Ashraful I, Gratzel M, Han L 2015 Science 350 944
Google Scholar
[13] Liu J, Wu Y Z, Qin C J, Yang X D, Yasuda T, Islam A, Zhang K, Peng W Q, Chen W, Han L Y 2014 Energy Environ. Sci. 7 2963
Google Scholar
[14] Arora N, Dar M I, Hinderhofer A, Pellet N, Schreiber F, Zakeeruddin S M, Gratzel M 2017 Science 358 768
Google Scholar
[15] Zhou H P, Chen Q, Li G, Luo S, Song T B, Duan H S, Hong Z R, You J B, Liu Y S, Yang Y 2014 Science 345 542
Google Scholar
[16] Luo D Y, Yang W Q, Wang Z P, Sadhanala A, Hu Q, Su R, Shivanna R, Trindade G F, Watts J F, Xu Z J, Liu T H, Chen K, Ye F J, Wu P, Zhao L C, Wu J, Tu Y G, Zhang Y F, Yang X Y, Zhang W, Friend R H, Gong Q H, Snaith H J, Zhu R 2018 Science 360 1442
Google Scholar
[17] Tan H, Jain A, Voznyy O, Lan X, García de Arquer F P, Fan J Z, Quintero-Bermudez R, Yuan M, Zhang B, Zhao Y, Fan F, Li P, Quan L N, Zhao Y, Lu Z H, Yang Z, Hoogland S, Sargent E H 2017 Science 355 722
Google Scholar
[18] Wu T, Wang Y, Li X, Wu Y, Meng X, Cui D, Yang X, Han L 2019 Adv. Energy Mater. 9 1803766
[19] Jiang C S, Yang M J, Zhou Y Y, To B, Nanayakkara S U, Luther J M, Zhou W L, Berry J J, van de Lagemaat J, Padture N P, Zhu K, Al-Jassim M M 2015 Nat. Commun. 6 8397
Google Scholar
[20] Kang Z, Si H, Shi M, Xu C, Fan W, Ma S, Kausar A, Liao Q, Zhang Z, Zhang Y 2019 Sci. China: Mater. 62 776
[21] Heiland G 1975 Berichte der Bunsengesellschaft für Physikalische Chemie 79 641
[22] Nonnenmacher M, O’Boyle M P, Wickramasinghe H K 1991 Appl. Phys. Lett. 58 2921
Google Scholar
[23] Bergmann V W, Weber S A L, Javier Ramos F, Nazeeruddin M K, Grätzel M, Li D, Domanski A L, Lieberwirth I, Ahmad S, Berger R 2014 Nat. Commun. 5 5001
Google Scholar
[24] Dymshits A, Henning A, Segev G, Rosenwaks Y, Etgar L 2015 Sci. Rep. 5 8704
Google Scholar
[25] Cai M L, Ishida N, Li X, Yang X D, Noda T, Wu Y Z, Xie F X, Naito H, Fujita D, Han L Y 2018 Joule 2 296
Google Scholar
[26] Chang J, Xiao J, Lin Z, Zhu H, Xu Q H, Zeng K, Hao Y, Ouyang J 2016 J. Mater. Chem. A 4 17464
Google Scholar
[27] Do Kim H, Ohkita H, Benten H, Ito S 2016 Adv. Mater. 28 917
Google Scholar
[28] Li M, Yan X, Kang Z, Liao X, Li Y, Zheng X, Lin P, Meng J, Zhang Y 2017 ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 7224
Google Scholar
[29] Zhang W, Pathak S, Sakai N, Stergiopoulos T, Nayak P K, Noel N K, Haghighirad A A, Burlakov V M, de Quilettes D W, Sadhanala A, Li W Z, Wang L D, Ginger D S, Friend R H, Snaith H J 2015 Nat. Commun. 6 10030
[30] Li W, Rothmann M U, Liu A, Wang Z Y, Zhang Y P, Pascoe A R, Lu J F, Jiang L C, Chen Y, Huang F Z, Peng Y, Bao Q L, Etheridge J, Bach U, Cheng Y B 2017 Adv. Energy Mater. 7 1700946
[31] Yun J S, Kim J, Young T, Patterson R J, Kim D, Seidel J, Lim S, Green M A, Huang S J, Ho-Baillie A 2018 Adv. Funct. Mater. 28 1705363
[32] Wang C, Xiao C, Yu Y, Zhao D, Awni R A, Grice C R, Ghimire K, Constantinou I, Liao W, Cimaroli A J, Liu P, Chen J, Podraza N J, Jiang C S, Al-Jassim M M, Zhao X, Yan Y 2017 Adv. Energy Mater. 7 1700414
Google Scholar
[33] Xiao C X, Wang C L, Ke W J, Gorman B P, Ye J C, Jiang C S, Yan Y F, Al-Jassim M M 2017 ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 38373
Google Scholar
[34] Lan F, Jiang M, Tao Q, Li G 2018 IEEE J. Photovolt. 8 125
Google Scholar
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